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“the two sūras of taking refuge [from evil]”, the name given to the two last sūras (CXIII and CXIV) of the Ḳurʾān, because they both begin with the words ḳul : aʿūd̲h̲u bi-rabbī . . . min . . . , “Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of. . . against . . . “, and are pronounced as prayers intended to dispel the evils engendered by the devil, evil spirits, the practice of magic, etc. The plural al-muʿawwid̲h̲āt is also found equally applied to these two sūras and to ¶ the preceding one, set forth in the form of a credo; this plural appears especially in al-Buk̲h̲ārī ( daʿawāt , bāb 12) in re…

(a.), a dish of meat cooked in sour milk, sometimes with fresh milk added, and with spices thrown in to enhance the flavour. This dish, which Abū Hurayra [ q.v.] is said to have particularly appreciated (see al-Masʿūdī, Murūd̲j̲ , viii, 403 = § 3562, where a piece of poetry in praise of maḍīra is cited), must have been quite well sought-after in mediaeval times (al-Ḏj̲āḥiẓ, however, does not cite it in his K. al-Buk̲h̲alā ’; see nevertheless al-T̲h̲aʿālibī, Laṭāʾif , 12, tr. C. E. Bosworth, 46). Its principal claim to fame comes from al-Hamad̲h̲ānī’s al-Maḳāma al-maḍīriyya …

, conventionally Taroudant, a town in the Sūs region of southern Morocco situated in lat. 30° 31′ N., long. 8° 55′ W. at an altitude of 250 m/820 feet. It lies 4 km/2½ miles from ¶ the right bank of the Wādr Sūs and some 83 km/51 miles from Āgādīr [ q.v.] and the Adantic coast. The old town is enclosed by a lengthy, high, early 18th-century crenellated wall with five gates. Tārūdānt was an important town in mediaeval Islamic times. It formed part of the Almoravid empire from 421/1030 onwards, but a century later was conquered by the Almohads. It was at Tārūdānt that…

, the name by which the author of the Descrittione dell’ Africa is generally known, who was in fact originally called al-Ḥasan b. Muḥammad al-Wazzān al-Zayyātī (or al-Fāsī). He was born in Granada between 894 and 901/1489 and 1495 into a family which had to emigrate to Morocco after that city’s fall [see g̲h̲arnāṭa ], and was brought up in Fās, where he received a good education and very soon entered the service of the administration there. Whilst still a student, he was employed for two years in the mental hospital, which he describes in detail ( Description , tr. Epaulard, i, 188 [see bīmāristān…

, a city of the Pegu district of Burma and the country’s capital, situated on the Rangoon (Hlaing) River (lat. 16° 47′ N., 96° 10′ E.). It was developed as a port in the mid-18th century by the founder of the last dynasty of Burmese kings, with a British trading factory soon established there and with flourishing groups of Parsee, Armenian and Muslim merchants. In 1852, during the Second Anglo-Burmese War, it passed definitively under British ¶ control, and Rangoon became a more modern city, and also, through immigration, largely Indian in composition. These last includ…

or Bag̲h̲būr , title of the Emperor of China in the Muslim sources. The Sanskrit * bhagaputra and the Old Iranian * bag̲h̲aput̲h̲ra , with which attempts have been made to connect this compound, are not attested, but a form bg̲h̲pwhr (= * bag̲h̲puhr ), signifying etymologically “son of God”, is attested in Parthian Pahlavī to designate Jesus, whence Sogdian bag̲h̲pūr , Arabicized as bag̲h̲būr and fag̲h̲fūr ; these forms were felt by the Arab authors as the translation of the Chinese T’ien tzŭ “son of heaven” (cf. Relation de la Chine et de l’Inde , ed. and tr. J. Sau…

(a.), literally “the fact of being pleased or contented; contentment, approval” (see Lane, 1100), a term found in Ṣūfī mysticism and also in early Islamic history. 1. In mystical vocabulary. In the Ḳurʾān, the root raḍiya and its derivatives occur frequently in the general sense of “to be content”, with nominal forms like riḍwān “God’s grace, acceptance of man’s submission” (e.g. III, 156/61, 168/174; IV, 13/12; IX, 73/72; LVII, 20, 27), although the actual form riḍā does not occur. In the writings of the proto-Ṣūfī al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī [ q.v.], it is a moral state, contentment with t…

, nationalist and reformist Tunisian writer, considered as the pioneer of the movement for feminine liberation in his country. Born in Tunis ca. 1899 into a family of modest status originally from the Ḥāma of Gabès, he studied at the Zaytūna [ q.v.] from 1911 to 1920 and gained the taṭwīʿ (corresponding to the diploma for completing secondary education). He then took part in the trade union movement and was put in charge of propaganda in an organisation founded in 1924, the D̲j̲āmiʿat ʿumūm al-ʿamala al-tūnisiyya , ¶ whose chief promoters were hunted down and banished in 1925. His…

, literally “action army”, the name usually given to the striking force sent from Salonica on 17 April 1909, under the command of Maḥmūd S̲h̲ewket Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.], to quell the counter-revolutionary mutiny in the First Army Corps in Istanbul. The striking force also known as the Army of Deliverance, reached the capital on 23 April (n.s.) ¶ and, after some clashes with the mutineers, occupied the city on the following day. (Ed.) Bibliography B. Lewis, The emergence of modern Turkey 3, London 1965, 212-3. See further ḥusayn ḥilmī pas̲h̲a and ittiḥād we teraḳḳī.

(t.), literally “lad of the interior”, i.e. “page of the inner service ( Enderūn [ q.v.])”, Ottoman term for those boys and youths, at first slaves, recruits through the devs̲h̲irme [ q.v.], and occasionally hostages, later (from the 11th/17th century) also free-born Muslims, who were selected for training in the palaces of Edirne and Istanbul in order to occupy the higher executive offices of the state. For details, see g̲h̲ulām , iv; ḳapi̊-ḳulu ; sarāy-i hümāyūn . (Ed.)

, a term employed in Algerian Arabic (cf. βαύκαλις) to denote a two-handled pottery vase used by women in the course of the divinatory practices to which it gave its name. The operation consisted, basically, of the woman who officiated improvising, after an invocation, a short poem which was also called būḳāla and from which portents were drawn. These practices, which seem to have enjoyed a certain vogue during the period when piracy was at its height (women wanted to have news of their men who were at sea), developed into …

(t.), the Ottoman Turkish term for the outer, more public rooms of a traditionally arranged house, used e.g. for the reception of guests and non-family members; it thus contrasted with the inner rooms which constituted the ḥaram or harem for the womenfolk. The term selāmli̊ḳ dāʾiresi is also found. A further use of the word selāmli̊ḳ is in the expression selāmli̊ḳ ālāyi̊ to denote the sultan’s ceremonial procession from the palace to the mosque for Friday worship, a practice kept up by the Ottomans up to and including Meḥemmed V Res̲h̲ād [ q.v.] in the second decade of the 20th century. (Ed.) Bi…

(a.), an Arabic technical term borrowed in the Middle Ages by Western astronomers, under the form almícantarat , to denote the parallel circles at the horizon and normally called circles of height or parallels of height. On the flat astrolabe, the ṣafīḥa bears the stereographic projection of different circles and notably of the muḳanṭarāt [see aṣturlāb ]. On a spherical astrolabe, only the visible ( ẓāhir ) hemisphere is generally provided with circles of height; these number 90, but one can equally well mark one of them only in Three, in five, etc. The use of the muḳanṭarāt is fairly clear…

, aḥmad zakī (1892-1955), Egyptian physician, journalist, writer and poet, a man of an astonishing variety of diverse activities. Born in Cairo on 9 February 1892, he had his primary and secondary education in his natal city, and then in 1912 went to study medicine in London, where he specialised in microbiology; at the same time, he became especially interested in apiculture and acquired quite an extensive knowledge of Anglo-Saxon culture and life which was to exert a deep influence on his literary production. On…

, known as Nāmī , historian of Sind in the Mug̲h̲al period. He was the son of a s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām from the island in the Indus river in Sind of Bhakkar [see bakkar ], born in the middle years of the 10th/16th century. After a stay in Gud̲j̲arāt, he entered the service of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar [ q.v.] in 1003-4/1595-6 and received a manṣab [ q.v.] or land-grant of 250, being employed on a diplomatic mission to the court of the Ṣafavid S̲h̲ah ʿAbbās I of Persia. He returned to Bhakkar in 1015/1606-7 and died there soon afterwards. His Persian Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Sind , often referred to as the Taʾrīk̲h̲-i…

(a.), literally, “one who gives right guidance, rus̲h̲d , irs̲h̲ād , in Ṣūfī mystical parlance, the spiritual director and initiator into the order ( ṭarīḳa ) of the novice or murīd [ q.v.] who is following the Sūfi path; synonyms are baba , pīr and s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ [ q.vv.]. As part of the guidance for the postulant, the murs̲h̲id bestows various tokens of spiritual grace and attainment upon the seeker [see murīd for details]. ¶ A special use of the term within the Persian world, in the compound form murs̲h̲id-i kāmil “perfect spiritual director”, occurred amongst the Ṣafawids [ q.v.] who ruled d…

b. aḥmad al-ḥasanī al-ʿalamī al-fāsī , Moroccan astronomer and physician of the 19th century who lived in Fās, dying there in 1313/1895. Like some others of his fellowcountrymen, he tried to improve the instruments used for calculating the hours of the prayers ( tawḳīt [ q.v.]), and he describes one of these invented by himself in his Irs̲h̲ād al-k̲h̲ill li-taḥḳīḳ al-sāʿa bi-rubʿ al-s̲h̲uʿāʿ wa ’l-ẓill . Besides some commentaries (in particular, on al-Wazzānī, called Abdaʿ al-yawāḳīt ʿalā taḥrīr al-mawāḳīt , Fās 1326/1908), he wrote a Dustūr abdaʿ al-yawāḳīt ʿalā taḥrīr al-mawāḳīt …

, a term commonly used in Ottoman administrative parlance for a ward or quarter of a town. As listed in the Ottoman registers [see daftar-i k̲h̲āḳānī ], the maḥalle s are of various kinds. Characteristically, the Ottoman maḥalle consisted of a religious community grouped around its mosque (or church or synagogue) and headed by its religious chief. In addition to its place of worship, the maḥalle normally had its own market, school and water fountain, these normally being supported by pious endowments. In many provincial towns, the maḥalle also had its own outer wall with a limited…

, aTurkicized Arabic expression meaning sacred trust or deposit, the name given to a collection of relics preserved in the treasury of the Topkapi palace in Istanbul. The most important are a group of objects said to have belonged to the Prophet; they included his cloak ( k̲h̲irḳa-i s̲h̲erīf [ q.v.]), a prayer-rug, a flag, a bow, a staff, a pair of horseshoes, as well as a tooth, some hairs (see liḥya ), and a stone bearing the Prophet’s footprint. In addition there are weapons, utensils and garments said to have belonged to the ancient prophets, to the early Caliph…

, in Turkish, “the New Fortress”, a fortress in the southeastern Crimea. It was founded by the Ottoman sultan Muṣṭafā II [ q.v.] in 1114/1702 to protect the nearby port of Kerč [ q.v.] and provide a counterweight to Azov, which had been conquered by Peter the Great in 1696 (and held by Russia for 17 years) [see azaḳ ]. When Catherine the Great’s armies marched into the Crimea in 1771, Yeñi Ḳalʿe and Kerč fell into Russian hands without resistance and in the Treaty of Küčük Ḳaynard̲j̲a [ q.v.] of 1774, the Porte ceded its rights to them, thus giving Russia control of the northern Black Sea shores. (Ed.)…

, Muḥammad Akram , poet of Mug̲h̲al India and exponent of the “Indian style” ( sabk- i hindī [ q.v.]) in the Persian poetry of the subcontinent. He was born at an unknown date in the first half of the 11th/17th century at Kund̲j̲āh, a small village in the Gud̲j̲rāt district of the northern Pand̲j̲āb (now in Pakistan). He was an adherent of the Ṣūfī order of the Ḳādiriyya [ q.v.], but apart from stays in Kas̲h̲mīr, Dihlī and Lahore, did not go very far from his native village, where he died in ca. 1106/1695. His works comprise a Dīwān , mainly of g̲h̲azal s, and a mat̲h̲nawī poem…

, the name of a town in the Bundelkhand region of Central India, administratively in the southwards-protruding tongue of the former United Provinces, Uttar Pradesh of the Indian Union. It is situated in lat. 24° 42′ N. and long. 78° 28′ E. on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway and on the Kānpūr (Cawnpore)—Saugor road. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Lalitā, wife of a Deccani Rād̲j̲ā, and till the early 16th century it was held by the Gonds. In the…

, a town of southern modem ʿIrāḳ and the chef-lieu of the governorate of D̲h̲ū Ḳār. It is situated on the left bank of the Euphrates, above the Hawr al-Ḥammār of the marshlands [see al-baṭīḥa ], some 177 km/110 miles to the northwest of Baṣra (lat. 31°04′ N., long. 46°17′ E.). The town was founded ca. 1870 by the paramount chief of the Muntafiḳ [ q.v.] confederation, Nāṣir Saʿdān Pas̲h̲a, who aided the administration of Midḥat Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.] in extending Ottoman Turkish influence over this largely S̲h̲īʿī region against local tribal interests. In July 1915 it was capture…

, Nawūsiyya , the name of an extremist S̲h̲īʿī sect ( rawāfiḍ ) attached to a certain Ibn Nāwūs or Ibn Nawus (sometimes changed into Ibn Mānūs), whose personal name varies according to the sources (ʿAd̲j̲lān, ʿAbd Allāh, Ḥamlān, etc.), or else attached to a place in the vicinity of Hīt called Nāwūsa (see Ibn K̲h̲urradād̲h̲bih, 72, 217; al-Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ , 179: Yāḳūt, s.v.; al-Idrīsī, index; Le Strange, Lands , 64-5). The Nāwūsiyya were characterised by the idea (sometimes attributed to the caliph Abū Ḏj̲aʿfar al-Manṣūr, 138-58/754-75 [ q.v.]) that the imām …

, name given by the Arabs to the daughter of Adam, the twin sister of Seth, wife of Cain and mother of ʿŪd̲j̲ [ q.v.]; see Ḏj̲āḥiẓ, Tarbīʿ (Pellat) index.—In zoology, ʿanāḳ denotes a kind of lynx, the caracal (from the Turkish ḳara ḳulaḳ "black-ear", Persian siyāh gūs̲h̲ ) found in much of Asia and Africa, which is thought to walk in front of the lion and, by its cry, to announce the latter’s approach.—In astronomy, ʿAnāḳ al-Banāt is the ζ of the Great Bear, and ʿAnāḳ al-Arḍ , ϒ Andromedae; see A. Benhamouda, Les Noms arabes des étoiles , in AIEO, Algiers, ix, 1951, 84, 97. (Ed.)

, Abu ’l-Fityān Muḥammad b. Sulṭan b. Muḥammad b. Ḥayyūs al-G̲h̲anawī , Syrian poet of the 5th/11th century. Born at Damascus in Ṣafar 394/December 1003, he seems to have been at first attached to the Banū ʿAmmār [see ʿammār ] of Tripoli in Syria, although he is referred to as being in Aleppo in 429/1037-8; his sympathy with the Fāṭimids of Egypt caused him to fall out of favour with the Banū ʿAmmār, who had become independent, and in 464/1072 he was summoned to Aleppo by the Mirdāsid [ q.v.] Maḥmūd b. Naṣr (457-67/1065-75), in whose praise he began to write. On the death of his patron, he wrote a mart̲…

, Abu ’l-Faḍl Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Sukkarī , Arabic poet of Marw, floruit later 4th/10th or early 5th/11th century. Al-T̲h̲aʿālibī quotes specimens of his light-hearted and witty poetry, and also of an interesting muzdawad̲j̲a in which he turned Persian proverbs into Arabic rad̲j̲az couplets, a conceit said to be one of his favourite activities. (Ed.) Bibliography T̲h̲aʿālibī, Yatīma, Damascus 1304/1886-7, iv, 22-5, Cairo 1375-7/1956-8, iv, 87-90 C. Barbier de Meynard, Tableau littéraire du Khorassan et de la Transoxiane au IV e siècle de l’hégire, in JA, Ser. 5, i (1853), 205-7.

, Saʿd b. ʿĀlī Bā Mad̲h̲ḥid̲j̲ (d. 857/1453), ʿAlawī sayyid of Ḥaḍramawt. He was the student of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Bā ʿAlawī of Tarīm, from the Saḳḳāf branch of the sayyids [see bā ʿalawī ], and in turn the s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ of Abū Bakr b. ʿAbd Allāh al-ʿAydarūs, the patron saint of Aden [see ʿadan ], d. 914/1508 [see ʿaydarūs ]. It was this last who was to compose the manāḳib of al-Suwaynī. (Ed.) Bibliography See R.B. Serjeant, The Saiyids of Hadramawt, London 1957.

, a small town in the province of Ḳum in modern Iran (lat. 33° 38′ N., long. 50° 03′ E.) some 70 km/42 miles to the south-southeast of Arāk/Sulṭānābād [ q.v.]. It is unmentioned in the mediaeval Islamic geographers, but now has fame as the birthplace of the Āyatallāh Rūḥ Allāh K̲h̲umaynī (1902-89 [ q.v. in Suppl.]). It is at present administratively in the s̲h̲ahrastān of Maḥallāt. In ca. 1950 it had a population of 7,038, which in 2003 had risen to 59,300. ¶ (Ed.) Bibliography Razmārā (ed.), Farhang-i d̲j̲ug̲h̲rāfiyā-yi Īrānzamīn, i, 81-2.

, an ancient fortified settlement situated some 60 km. to the south-east of Aleppo and 100 km. to the north-east of Ḥamāt, on a route through the desert—on the fringes of which it lies—connecting Aleppo with Bag̲h̲dād. The foundation of the place is attributed to K̲h̲unāsir(a) b. ʿAmr of the Banū Kināna (Ibn al-Kalbī-Caskel, Tab. 290 and ii, 349), but it is probably older than this. Yāḳūt (s.v.), who cites also al-K̲h̲unāṣir b. ʿAmr, the representative of Abraha al-As̲h̲ram, may be echoing a later legend. In the Umayyad period, this chef-lieu of the kūra of al-Aḥaṣ…

, Mustafa Fevzi , also called Kavak̲lı, marshal in the Turkish army. Born in Istanbul in 1876, he was the son of an artillery colonel. He entered the war academy (Harbiye, [ q.v.]) where he became a lieutenant in 1895, joined the staff course, and was gazetted as a staff captain in 1898. After spending some time on the general staff, he was posted to Rumelia where he became successively a Colonel, divisional commander, and Army Corps Chief of Staff. He served on the staff of the army of the Vardar during the Balkan War, and du…

, Ḳurʾānic term (CVI, 1-2) which probably refers to economic relations entered into by the Ḳurays̲h̲īs well before the advent of Islam, but which presents problems of reading and interpretation which are not easily solved. In the first place, this Sūra CVI, which is very short and certainly very early (no. 3 in the classification by R. Blachère), begins abruptly, after the basmala , with the words li-īlāfi Ḳurays̲h̲in īlāfihim riḥlata ’l-s̲h̲itāʾi wa ’l-ṣayfi , which may be translated as: “because of the īlāf of the Ḳurays̲h̲īs, [of] their īlāf of the journey of winter and of summer…

, Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. al-Mahdī al-G̲h̲azzāl al-Andalusī al-Malaḳī , the secretary of the sultan of Morocco Sīdī Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh (1171-1204/1757-89), who entrusted to him various diplomatic missions. In 1179/1766 he was the head of a delegation sent to negotiate an exchange of captives with Charles III of Spain; he was received with great honour in Madrid, and was able to return to Morocco with a Spanish mission which made a peace treaty with the sultan and an agreement abo…

, minor poet of the second half of the 2nd/8th century who died circa 193/809. Of obscure origin and a mawlā of the ʿAbbāsids, he held, according to Ibn al-Muʿtazz, the office of secretary to al-Mahdī but, having once been suspected of zandaḳa , he was dismissed and obliged to beg for a living. Like so many of his contemporaries, he led a disorganized and even dissolute life, but he was not lacking in wit, to judge by the anecdotes of which he is the hero. Ibn al-Muʿtazz described him as a born ( maṭbūʿ ) poet, while the author of the Ag̲h̲ānī has a different opinion of him…

(thus in al-Ṭabarī; in al-Masʿūdī, b. Farruk̲h̲-zād), Persian general and commander of the Sāsanid army at the battle of al-Ḳādisiyya [ q.v.] fought against the Arabs in Muḥarram 15/February-March 536 or Muḥarram 16/February 637, the battle in which he was killed. His father is described as the ispabad̲h̲ [ q.v.] of K̲h̲urāsān, for which province Rustam was deputy. In the lengthy account by al-Ṭabarī of the battle of al-Ḳādisiyya, derived mainly from Sayf b. ʿUmar, there is much folkloric material, doubdess derived from materials used by the ḳuṣṣāṣ [see ḳāṣṣ ], …

( Ibn Ḥammād ), Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥammād b. ʿĪsā b. ʿAbī Bakr al-Ṣanhād̲j̲ī , a Berber ḳāḍī and historian related to the Banū Ḥammād [ q.v.] and a native of a village near their Ḳalʿa [ q.v.]. After studying at the Ḳalʿa and in Bougie, he was ḳāḍī of Algeciras and Salé (unless there is some confusion on the part of the writer of the Mafāk̲h̲ir al-Barbar (65), who gives him the kunya of Abu ’l-Ḥasan, he was also ḳāḍī of Azammūr in 616/1219), and he died in 628/1231. His Kitāb al-Nubad̲h̲ al-muḥtād̲j̲a fī ak̲h̲bār mulūk Ṣanhād̲j̲a bi-Ifrīḳiya wa-Bid̲j̲āya , whi…

, ʿi̊ti̊ḳnāme , also ʿi̊tāḳnāme , an Ottoman term for a certificate of manumission, given to a liberated slave [see ʿabd ]. The document normally gives the name and physical description, often also the religion and ethnie origin of the slave, together with the date and circumstances of his manumission, and is dated, signed, witnessed, and registered. The issue of such certificates goes back to early Islamic times (for examples see A. Grohmann, Arabic papyri in the Egyptian library, i, Cairo 1934, 61-4; idem, Arabische Papyri aus den Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin , in Isl …

(a.), a phrase occurring in the Ḳurʾān (VI, 128; VII, 188; X, 50; XVIII, 37; LXXXVII, 7; cf. XI, 109-10, LXXII, 8) and widely used in the Islamic lands of the Middle East with the general meaning of “what God does, is well done”. The formula denotes that things happen according to God’s will and should therefore be accepted with humility and resignation. In a cognate signification, the phrase is often used to indicate a vague, generally a great or considerable, but some times a small, number or quantity of time (Lane, Lexicon , s.v., who refers to S. de Sacy, Relation de l’Egypte, 246, 394). One …

, Kambō , S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ D̲j̲amālī , Suhrawardī Ṣūfī saint of early 10th/16th century Muslim India, who died in 941/1534-5 during the reign of the Mug̲h̲al ruler Humāyūn [ q.v.] and was buried at Mihrawlī. His son Gadāʾī [see gadāʾī kambō, in Suppl.], whom D̲j̲amālī had in his lifetime made his k̲h̲alīfa or spiritual successor within the Suhrawardī order, achieved equal religious influence at the courts of Humāyūn and then Akbar. (Ed.) Bibliography See that to gadāʾī kambō.

, an Arabic verbal noun, from the tenth form of the root ḳ-l-l . In Classical and Middle Arabic this form is used with a variety of meanings (see Dozy and other dictionaries), and especially to convey the notion of separate, detached, unrestricted, not shared, or sometimes even arbitrary. It occurs occasionally in a political context— e.g., of a dynasty, a region, a people or a city quarter not effectively subject to some higher authority. Such occurrences are, however, rare, and the word was in no sense a political technical term. In Ottoman officia…

, the father of Abū Sufyān and father-in-law of Abū Lahb [ qq.v.], one of the leading figures of Mecca in his day. He is said to have been the first to use Arabic writing, and one of the first to renounce wine. A companion of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, he succeeded him ¶ as war-leader, and led the clan of ʿAbd S̲h̲ams and, according to some traditions, all Ḳurays̲h̲ in the so-called sacrilegious war [see fid̲j̲ār ]. After his death the leadership is said to have passed to the Banū Hās̲h̲im. The story of his contest of merits and subsequent quarrel with ʿAb…

, Sunḳur (t.), one of the many words in Turkish denoting birds of prey. In the modern Turkic languages, and probably always, it means the gerfalcon, falco gyrfalco (Sir Gerard Clauson, An etymological dict. of pre-thirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 838a). Maḥmūd al-Kās̲h̲g̲h̲arī says that it was a raptor smaller than the ṭog̲h̲ri̊l ( Dīwān lug̲h̲āt al-turk , tr. Atalay, iii, 381). The term became frequently used as a personal name in mediaeval Islamic times, both alone and in such combinations as Aḳ/Ḳara Sonḳor “White/Black Gerfalcon”, cf. J. Sauvaget, Noms et surnoms de Mamelouk …

, the Amīr, lord of Hamad̲h̲ān, played an important rôle in the struggles for the throne between the rival Sald̲j̲ūḳ princes Barkiyāruḳ and Muḥammad I. After having first taken the side of the latter, in 494/1100 he went over to the side of Barkiyāruḳ, ¶ and, after the latter’s death, became the Atabeg of his son Maliks̲h̲āh, who was a minor. He could not, however, hold his own against Muḥammad, and was treacherously murdered by him in 499/1105. (Ed.) Bibliography Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, x, 199 ff. Houtsma, Receuil, ii, 90 see also barkiyāruḳ and muḥammad b. maliks̲h̲āh.

(this, though illogical, is the normal order of the words), “those who are qualified to unbind and to bind”, the representatives of the community of the Muslims who act on their behalf in appointing and deposing a caliph or ¶ another ruler [see bayʿa]. They must be Muslims, male, of age, free, ʿadl [ q.v.], and capable of judging who is best qualified to hold the office. No fixed number of “electors” is required; according to the prevailing opinion, even the appointment made by one “elector” in the presence of two qualified witnesses is valid. This…

, pl. d̲j̲usūr (Ar., cf. Fränkel, Aram. Fremdwörter im Arab historians asArabischen , 285), “bridge”, is more particularly, though by no means exclusively, a bridge of boats in opposition to ḳanṭara [ q.v.], an arched bridge of stone. An incident in the history of the conquest of Babylonia has become celebrated among the Arab historians as yawm al-d̲j̲isr “the day of [the fight at] the bridge”: in 13/634 Abū ʿUbayd al-T̲h̲aḳafī was defeated and slain in battle against the Persians at a bridge across the Euphrates near Ḥīra; cf. Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten ,…

(t.), the common Turkish word for “water”, originally suv (which explains the form suy before vowel-initial possessive suffixes, e.g. suyu “his water”), the form still found in South-West Turkmen, in Ottoman orthography ṣū . The word is found frequently in the Ork̲h̲on inscriptions, often in the phrase yer suv = “territory”, i.e. an area containing both land and water in the form of rivers, lakes, etc. (see Sir Gerald Clauson, An etymological dictionary of prethirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 783-4). In Central Asia and in the Turkicised northern tier of the Midd…

He is cited among the “famous ¶ pupils” of Ibn al-Ṣaffār [ q.v.] by Ṣāʿid al-Andalusī, who presents him moreover as very knowledgeable in grammar, Ḳurʾān, theoretical and practical law, and appreciates highly his character and conduct. He mentions as his principal pupils Ibn al-Layt̲h̲, Ibn al-D̲j̲allal and Ibn al-Ḥayy. The first, Muḥammad b. Aḥmad, was an expert in the field of arithmetic and geometry and devoted himself to astronomical observations, at the same time as performing the functions of ḳāḍī of S̲h̲urriyūn (Surio), in the region of Játiva. …

, the Ottoman Turkish name for the Vardar , Grk. Axios, a river of the southern Balkans. It rises in the Šar Mountains near where Macedonia, Albania and the region of Kosovo meet, and flows northeastwards and then in a southeastern and south-south-eastern direction through the present (Slavic) Macedonian Republic [see maḳadūnyā ], past Skopje or Üsküb [ q.v.] and through Greek Macedonia to the Gulf of Salonica. Its length is 420 km/260 miles. The lower valley of the Vardar probably passed into Ottoman Turkish hands around the time of the first Turkish capture of Salonica in 1387 [see selānīk …

(a.) or ʿāriya , also iʿāra , the loan of non-fungible objects ( prêt à usage, commodatum ). It is distinguished as a separate contract from the ḳarḍ or loan of money or other fungible objects ( prêt de consommation, mutuum ). It is defined as putting some one temporarily and gratuitously in possession of the use of a thing, the substance of which is not consumed by its use. The intended use must be lawful. It is a charitable contract and therefore "recommended" ( mandūb ), and the beneficiary or borrower enjoys the privileged position of a trustee ( amīn ); he is not, in …

, a Persian word meaning the song of the nightingale, and hence by extension fame, repute, and loud cries of various kinds. In Turkish usage it is applied more particularly to the call of the muezzin [see ad̲h̲ān ] and to the Muslim war-cry ( Allāhu Akbar and Allāh Allāh ). In the Ottoman Empire it was used of certain ceremonial and public prayers and acclamations, more specifically those of the corps of Janissaries [see yeñi Čeri ]. Such prayers were recited at pay parades and similar occasions, at the beginning of a campaign, when they were accomp…