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, modern Turkish Ulu Dağ, a small but imposing mountain range in northwestern Anatolia, to the south-east of Bursa [ q.v.] and now in the il or province of Bursa. It is some 32 km/20 miles by 13 km/8 miles in extent, and its forest-clad slopes rise to a peak of 2,493 m/8,170 feet (lat. 40° 05′ N., long. 28° 58′ E.), the highest point of western Anatolia. It is the classical Mysian Olympus, but its more modern fame is as a winter ski resort. (Ed.) Bibliography Sir Wm. Ramsay, The historical geography of Asia Minor, London 1890, 146 Naval Intelligence Division, Admiralty Handbooks, Turkey, London 19…

(or Ḏj̲āvuldur ), a Turcoman tribe, the first settlers of which came to Ḵh̲wārizm in the 16th and 17th centuries, the bulk following in the 18th century. After the wars against the Ḵh̲ānate of Ḵh̲īwa, a proportion of them was driven off to the Mangi̊s̲h̲laḳ peninsula, whence some clans emigrated to the steppes of Stavropol’. Part of the tribe submitted to Ḵh̲īwa and settled permanently in Ḵh̲wārizm. It is now a sedentary tribe with a population of ¶ some 25,000, in the Nuk̲h̲us area (Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of Ḳara-Ḳalpaḳistān). [See: Türkmen ]. (Ed.)

(t., from Persian pand̲j̲ yak “fifth”), a term of Ottoman Turkish financial and administrative usage. It denoted the fifth which the sultan drew as the ruler’s right (equivalent to the Arabic k̲h̲ums [ q.v.in Suppl.]) from booty captured in the Dār al-Ḥarb . This involved, in particular, the collection of young boys from the Christian Balkans and Greece by the process of the dews̲h̲irme [see devs̲h̲irme ], and these were then trained for either palace or military service as the ḳapi̊ ḳullari̊ ; the official in charge of the process of thus extracting the sultan’s fifth was termed the pend̲j̲i…

, (or zawlāk ), Abū Muḥammad al-Ḥasan b. Ibrāhīm … al-Layt̲h̲ī , born 306/919, died 386/996, Egyptian historian, the author of a number of biographical, historical and topographical works on Egypt in the time of the Ik̲h̲s̲h̲īdids and early Fāṭimids. These works, though almost entirely lost, underlie a good deal of subsequent historiography relating to this period. He is said to have written continuations to the works of al-Kindī [ q.v.] on the governors and judges of Egypt, a book on the Mād̲h̲arāʾī [ q.v.] family of officials, and others on the reigns of the Ik̲h̲s̲h̲īd, Kāfū…

, a hill fortress and settlement in the S̲h̲āhābād District in the northeast of the state of Bihar in the Indian Union (lat. 24° 37′ N., long. 83° 55′ E.), some 50 km/30 miles south of the town of Sahsārām [ q.v.]. There must have been a Hindu fort or settlement there previously, but the present fortifications date from its capture by S̲h̲īr S̲h̲āh Sūr [ q.v.] in 946/1539. They were added to by Akbar’s general Mān Singh [ q.v.] when he was appointed governor of Bihār and Bengal. It was surrendered to the British army in Bengal soon after the battle of Baksar (Buxar [ q.v.]) in 1764 through the effor…

, abū mālik al-aʿrābī , mawlā of the Banū Saʿd, had learnt the ʿarabiyya in the desert and had settled at Baṣra. Since his mother had married Abu ’l-Baydāʾ [ q.v.], he acted as rāwiya to this last, but he owed his fame to his incomparable knowledge of the Arabic language, since, according to an oft-mentioned tradition, he knew it in its entirety, whereas al-Aṣmaʿī had only one-third of it, Abū ʿUbayda (or al-K̲h̲alīl b. Aḥmad) half of it and Abū Zayd al-Anṣārī (or Muʾarrid̲j̲) two-thirds of it. His speciality was rare words. Abū Mālik was allegedly the author of at least two works, a K. K̲h̲alḳ al-…

(t.), the title of one of the three commanders who formed the dīwān or administrative focus of the Janissary corps of the Ottoman army (the other two being the S̲h̲amsund̲j̲i̊ Bas̲h̲i̊ and the Turnad̲j̲i̊ Bas̲h̲i̊). Since zag̲h̲ar means “hound” and zag̲h̲ard̲j̲i̊ “keeper of the hounds”, the orta or company of the zag̲h̲ard̲j̲i̊s (no. 64 in the Janissary corps) was probably in origin part of the hunting force of the early Ottoman sultans (cf. also the Segbāns [ q.v. in Suppl.]). (Ed.) Bibliography İ.H. Uzunçarşili, Osmanli devleti teşkilâtindan kapi kulu ocaklar, Ankara 1943-4, i, 19…

(a.), in Islamic law, the civil liability in the widest meaning of the term, whether it arises from the non-performance of a contract or from tort or negligence ( taʿaddī , literally “transgression”). Prominent particular cases are the liability for the loss of an object sold before the buyer has taken possession ( ḍamān al-mabīʿ ), for eviction ( ḍamān al-darak ), for the loss of a pledge in the possession of the pledgee ( ḍamān al-rahn), for the loss of an object that has been taken by usurpation ( ḍamān al-g̲h̲aṣb ), and for loss or damage caused by artisans ( ḍamān al-ad̲j̲īr , ḍ . al-ṣunnāʿ …

(a.), a term used in Ottoman administrative parlance to mean vacant. It is used in the registers of a grant or office which has been vacated by the previous holder, by death, dismissal, or transfer, and not yet re-allocated. The term is also used more generally for land and other assets left without heir (see also muk̲h̲allafāt ). (Ed.)

, Ḥasan b. Muḥammad b. Ḥasan, the author of a local history of the town of Ḳum [ q.v.] in northern Persia, fl. in the 4th/10th century. He is said to have compiled his history originally in Arabic at the instigation of his brother, Abu ’l-Ḳāsim ʿAlī, governor of Ḳum for the Būyids, aiming to gather together and record all the traditions about the arrival of the Arabs in Ḳum and the town’s subsequent history. He dedicated the book to the famous vizier, the Ṣāḥib Ibn ʿAbbād [see ibn ʿabbād ]. The Arabic original has not survived, but a Persian translation was made by one Ḥasan [b. ʿAlī…

(Bandar Rābig̲h̲, Rābug̲h̲), a port in the Ḥid̲j̲āz province of Saudi Arabia, in lat. 22° 48ʹ N., and long. 39° 1ʹ E., half-way between D̲j̲udda [ q.v.] and Yanbuʿ. It may perhaps be identified with Ptolemy’s ’Αργα χώμη (Sprenger, Die alte Geographie , no. 38). North of Rābig̲h̲ lies al-Abwāʾ [ q.v.], now called al-K̲h̲urayba. the reputed burial place of the Prophet’s mother Āmina [ q.v.]. In the past, the port had no proper harbour. Ships anchored at S̲h̲arm Rābig̲h̲, an inlet about 3 km long, which offered excellent anchorage (Hogarth, Hejaz , 29). From there ca…

(a.), in early Arabic “the confused noise of distant thunder” (Lane, 1249b), but widely used in the sources for early Islamic history for the priests of the Magians reciting and intoning the Zoroastrian prayers and scriptures, producing (to the Arabs’ ears) an indistinct, droning sound. Thus in al-Ṭabarī, i, 1042, we have the zamzama of the Herbadhs, in 2874 the muzamzim or adherent of Zoroastrianism, and in 2880 zamzama for the Zoroastrian rites and zamāzima for the Magians in general. The term may have passed into Christian Sogdian texts, probably in the early Islamic period, as zmzmʾ …

, S̲h̲ammāk̲h̲ī, S̲h̲ammāk̲h̲iyya, the mediaeval Islamic names for a town in the former region of S̲h̲īrwān in eastern Caucasia, from ca. the 4th/10th century capital of the local Yazīdī dynasty of S̲h̲īrwān S̲h̲āhs, by whom it was temporarily re-named Yazīdiyya. For its pre-modern role and then for its post-1917 one, first within the Azerbaijan Republic of the former Soviet Union and now in the independent Republic of Azerbaijan, under its present name of S̲h̲emak̲h̲a, see s̲h̲īrwān and s̲h̲īrwān s̲h̲āhs . (Ed.)

, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Meḥmed Ṭāhir , Ottoman ḳāḍī and author of several theological works, often known as Ḳāḍī Meḥmed. The date of his birth is unknown, but he was born in Istanbul and was presumably connected with the Lālezār quarter near the Fātiḥ Mosque. He became a mollā and a müderris . In 1201/1786-7 he was ḳāḍī at Eyyūb, and then on 30 Muḥarram 1204/20 October 1789 he died at his house in Rumeli Ḥiṣār. None of his extant works has been printed, but these all exist in manuscript in Istanbul libraries. They include a series of theological commentaries, such as the Mīzān al-muḳīm fī maʿrifat al-ḳisṭ…

, the name, nowadays replaced by al-Nāṣirī , of a Moroccan family who founded the branch of the S̲h̲ād̲h̲iliyya order [ q.v.] known as Nāṣiriyya and founded its headquarters at the zāwiya of Tamgrūt [ q.v.] in southern Morocco. The numerous biographical sources, published and unedited, as well as a monograph on the family, the Ṭalʿat al-mus̲h̲tarī (Fās 1309) by Aḥmad al-Nāṣirī al-Salāwī, allow its history to be traced easily and allow a genealogical tree to be constructed; the reader will find information on this in the article al-Nāṣiriyya , and there will mer…

, Abu ’l-Ḳāsim Hibat Allāh b. Abī ’l-Faḍl Ḏj̲aʿfar b. al-Muʿtamid , known as al-Ḳāḍī al-Saʿīd, Arabic poet of the Ayyūbid period famous mainly for the treatise Dār al-ṭirāz which he devoted to the genre of muwas̲h̲s̲h̲aḥ [ q.v.]. He was born in Cairo circa 550/1155, and died there in 608/1211; he was educated by Egyptian teachers and, like his father al-Ḳāḍī al-Ras̲h̲īd, embarked on the career of ḳāḍī ; he worked under the direction of al-Ḳāḍī al-Fāḍil, whom he joined at Damascus and to whom he dedicated some pieces of poetry; he also wrote in praise of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn (Saladin). …

, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb b. ʿut̲h̲mān , a Moroccan diplomat and vizier of the 12th/18th century, who played a prominent role in the forging of ties between his country and Spain. At the start of his career he followed his father as preacher in one of the mosques of Meknès; here he came to the attention of the Sultan, Sīdī Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh (1171-1204/1757-89) who, at a date difficult to determine, took him into his service as a secretary. In 1193/1799, he was …

, Abu ’l-Maḥāsin S̲h̲araf al-Dīn Muḥ. b. Naṣr b. ʿAlī b. Muḥ. b. G̲h̲ālib al-Anṣārī , satirical poet born at Damascus on 9 S̲h̲aʿbān 549/19 October 1154, and died there on 20 Rabīʿ I 630/4 January 1233. After receiving a traditional education from the main teachers of Damascus and spending a period in ʿIrāḳ, Ibn ʿUnayn began early to use his lively satire against many different kinds of people; he did not spare even Salāḥ al-Dīn (Saladin), who had just made himself master of the town (570…

, ʿAbd al-Hakīm b. S̲h̲ams al-Dīn (d. 1067/1657), counsellor of the Mughal emperor S̲h̲āh D̲j̲ahān ( regn . 1037-68/1628-58 [ q.v.]), versatile scholar and well-known writer of glosses ( ḥawās̲h̲ī , sg. ḥās̲h̲iya ) on a number of popular textbooks. Many of them exist in old prints and lithographs, of which a fair number have recently been reprinted. In non-Indian prints, his name often appears distorted as al-Siyalkūtī or al-Silkūtī (intended vowels unknown). Works on which he wrote ḥawās̲h̲ī include: (1) the Tafsīr of al-Bayḍāwī (d. 685/1286 or later [ q.v.]); (2) the commentary of …

, Sandābūr , a port on the western coast of peninsular India. Al-Idrīsī describes it as a trading town on a large estuary with an anchor-: age. It has been tentatively identified with either Sidd̲h̲āpūr/S̲h̲iddāpūr or the modern S̲h̲adās̲h̲ivagad, some 80 km/50 miles south of Goa, hence in what is now the union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu in the Indian Union. (Ed.) Bibliography S. Maqbul Ahmad, India and the neighbouring territories in the Kitāb Nuzḥat al-Mus̲h̲tāq ... of al-S̲h̲arīf al-Idrīsī, Leiden 1960, 58, 62, 102, 159.

, īliyyā (1889-1957), poet and journalist of Lebanese origin, who spent his childhood in the village of al-Muḥaydit̲h̲a near Bikfayā, his birthplace, but left his native land at the age of 11 to help his maternal uncle with his business in Alexandria. During his stay of some dozen years in Egypt, he was able to find time to acquire an advanced literary education, to learn a lot of classical and modern poetry and to frequent the circles of intellectuals who were in varying de…

(t.) “son of a slave”, in Ottoman usage, more specifically the son of a Janissary, admitted to the pay-roll of the corps; for further information see yeñi čeri . In the period of Turkish domination in Algeria and Tunisia, the word ḳulug̲h̲lī/kulug̲h̲lī and, with dissimilation, ḳurug̲h̲lī/kurug̲h̲lī (pl. ḳulug̲h̲lān/kulug̲h̲lān , ḳurug̲h̲lān/kurug̲h̲lān/krag̲h̲el ; French koulougli and variants) denoted those elements of the population resulting from marriages of Turks with local women. They were fairly numerous at Tunis, Alg…

, from Persian dīdebān , a term applied at different times to certain categories of sentinels, watchmen, inspectors, etc. It already appears as the name of a profession in the Rasāʾil Ik̲h̲wān al-Ṣafā (8th risāla of 1st series, ed. Cairo, i, 210; cf. IC, 1943, 147), together with the Nātūr . In classical Ottoman usage the term, pronounced Dīdebān , was applied to the Customs-house guards, whose chief was the Dīdebān bas̲h̲i̊ . It was also given to the watchmen on the fire-towers in Istanbul, as well as to naval and military look-outs. (Ed.) Bibliography Dozy, Supplément, i, 481 I. H. Uzunçarş…

(a.), the name of the fourteenth metre in Arabic prosody [see ʿarūḍ ]. Theoretically, it comprises Three feet: mustafʿilun / fāʿilātun / fāʿilātun ( ─ ─ ∪ ─ / ─ ∪ ─ ─ / ─ ∪ ─ ─ ) to each hemistich, but in practice, there is just one single fāʿilātun. Mustafʿilun can become mutafʿilun (∪ ─ ∪ ─ ) or even mutafʿilu (∪ ─ ∪∪), whilst fāʿilātun can be replaced in the ʿarūḍ (the first hemistich) by faʿilātun (∪∪ ─ ─ ) or even fāʿilun ( ─ ∪ ─ ) and, in the ḍarb (the second hemistich) by one of the two preceding feet or by mustafʿil ( ─ ─ ─ ). This metre is not used by the ancient poets, and it is not impossible th…

, a plain in eastern Anatolia through which the Murad Su, sc. the more southerly of the two upper arms of the Euphrates, flows in one part of its course between Malazgird and Muş, hence now in the modern Turkish il or province of Muş; see further, al-furāt . (Ed.)

, aḥmad b. ʿalī , poet and littérateur, originally from al-Batt in ʿIrāḳ (Yāḳūt, i, 488), who was a member of the staff of al-Ḳādir’s chancery (reigned 381-422/992-1031). When the future caliph had in 381/991 to flee from al-Ṭāʾiʿ, al-Battī had already been in his service, since it was with him that al-Ḳādir sought refuge. Hence as soon as he succeeded to the caliphate, he appointed al-Battī to his dīwān , where he was in charge of the postal service and of intelligence. A Muʿtazilī in theology and a Ḥanafī in fiḳh , he had previously specialised in study of the Ḳurʾān and ḥadīt̲h̲ …

is one of the Turkish forms of the name Muḥammad which, having been borne by the Prophet of Islam, is by far the commonest used name in the Islamic world. Independent of the modifications which it may undergo from the influence of the speech habits of allophonic groups and the phonetic structure of languages other than Arabic, this name has undergone, in spite of—and perhaps because of—the veneration which it inspires, various deliberate modifications on the part of sincere Muslims who hold fast to what exactly respects the …

, “the rearwards region”, conventionally Dhahirah, the name given to the interior, landwards part of ʿUmān, that lying behind the D̲j̲abal Ak̲h̲ḍar range and merging into the desert fringes of the Empty Quarter [see al-rubʿ al-k̲h̲ālī ]. The term al-Ẓāhira contrasts with that of al-Bāṭina, the coastlands of ʿUmān. The religious and political history of this “inner ʿUmān”, and its social and cultural development, with local Ibāḍī elements mingled with Sunnīs, have frequently diverged from that of the Sultanate…

(a.; noun of unity, ḥaysa ), an Arab dish made from dates (of the variety called barnī ) crushed and then kneaded with some preserved butter; to this is added skimmed, dried and crumbly camels’ milk cheese, or some flour, or even some crumbled bread. The invention of this mixture of ingredients is attributed traditionnally (see al-D̲j̲āḥiẓ, Buk̲h̲alaʾ , ed. Ḥād̲j̲irī, 211; tr. in Arabica , ii/3 [1955], 336) to a prominent member of Mak̲h̲zūm called Suwayd al-Haramī (Ibn al-Kalbī-Caskel, D̲j̲amhara , Tab. 22), who is also said to have been the first to s…

, Abu ’l-Ḥusayn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān , S̲h̲āfīʿī faḳīh and specialist in the Ḳurʾānic readings, born at Malaṭya [ q.v.] and died at ʿAsḳalān in 377/987, whence the nisba of al-ʿAsḳalānī which he also bears. He was the author of a ḳaṣīda of 59 verses on the readings and the readers, in imitation of a poem by Mūsā b. ʿUbayd Allāh al-K̲h̲āḳānī, but he deserves the notice of Islamicists through his having left behind one of the oldest treatises on heresiography, the Kitāb al-Tanbīh wa ’l-radd ʿalā ahl al-ahwāʾ wa ’l-bidaʿ , which has been edited and publi…

or Bagimzā, in the time of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate, was a village north-east of Bag̲h̲dād, some 8 miles from Baʿḳūbā, where the caliph al-Muḳtafī bi-Amr Allāh put to flight the troops of the Sald̲j̲ūḳ Sulṭān Muḥammad II under Alp Ḳus̲h̲ Kūn-i Ḵh̲ar in 549/1154. (Ed.) Bibliography Yāḳūt, i, 497, 706 Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, xi, 129 Houtsma, Recueil, ii, 237 ff.

ibrāhīm ḥilmī pas̲h̲a (b. 1160/1747, d. 1240/1825) Ottoman Grand Vizier, November 1806-June 1807. The son of a Janissary officer, he rose through various posts in the corps to the chief command (hence he is sometimes referred to as Ibrāhīm “Ag̲h̲a”). Upon the dismissal of Ḥāfiẓ Ismāʿīl Pas̲h̲a (14 November 1806), provoked by the attempt to use the troops of the Niẓām-i Ḏj̲edīd [ q.v.] in Rūmeli, he was appointed Grand Vizier. As serdār against Russia (war having been declared by the Porte on 22 December), he led a refractory army of Janissaries…

, Yūsuf b. Sulaymān b. Marwān al-Anṣārī, Abū ʿUmar, b. 367/978, d. at Murcia 448/1056, grammarian of Muslim Spain. Best known as such, he is equally credited with competence in fiḳh , poetry, metrics and genealogies. It appears that he played a certain role in the reconciliation of the various grammatical schools in al-Andalus. A Radd ʿalā ’l-Ḳabrī and a Radd ʿalā Abī Muḥammad al-Aṣīlī are attributed to him, but do not seem to have survived. (Ed.) Bibliography Ibn Bas̲h̲kuwāl, Ṣila, Cairo 1374/1955, ii, 640 no. 1499 Kaḥḥāla, Muʾallifīn, Damascus 1376-80/1957-61, xiii, 303.

(a.), lit. “something circular”, a term used in the central and western parts of the Arab world in the later Middle Ages to denote a large tent of rulers and great men, used especially when the army was on the march. K̲h̲alīl al-Ẓāhirī ( Zubdat kas̲h̲f al-mamālik , ed. R. Ravaisse, Paris 1894, 136-7, tr. Venture de Paradis, Beirut 1950, 228) states that when the Mamlūk sultan sent out a powerful military expedition, the order of the commander’s tents, when encamped, is that the highest-ranking officer’s tent ( waṭāḳ ) is set up at the end of the formation, with the sultan’s mudawwara …

, a family of derebeys [ q.v.] in Ottoman southern Anatolia, with their centre of power in the 19th century in the sand̲j̲aḳ of Ḳōzān [ q.v.] (i.e. western Ḳōzān) and the ḳaḍāʾ of Ḳōzān (i.e. east Ḳōzān), in the piedmont area where the Taurus Mountains come down to the Cilician Plain or Çukurova. They were thus in a good position, during the 19th century, together with other local derebeys, to dominate the plain and at times to exert influence in Adana itself. The Ḳōzān-og̲h̲ullari̊ claimed descent from a Turkmen tribe which had entered Cilicia in Sald̲j̲ūḳ times, and which is…

, country of the d̲j̲inns , beyond the sands of Yabrīn, into which no human ventures, and also a fabulous kind of camels, which are the issue of a cross between ordinary camels and d̲j̲inn stallions or descended from the camels of the Wabār [ q.v.], whose country they alone occupy. At times the males leave these desert wastes to attack herds and mate with female domestic camels; it is thus, it is thought, that famous species such as the mahriyya [see ibil ] or the ʿasd̲j̲ādiyya are born. Ḥūs̲h̲ appears to be a doublet of waḥs̲h̲ [ q.v.] “wild”, and ḥūs̲h̲ī/waḥs̲h̲ī is a te…

al-fazarī , abū wāt̲h̲la , official in the service of the Umayyads who governed ʿIrāḳ from Baṣra between 99/718 and 101/720. He was appointed to this office by ʿUmar b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz in place of Yazīd b. al-Muhallab, and received the order to arrest all the sons of al-Muhallab. He managed to get hold of al-Mufaḍḍal, Ḥabīb, Marwān and Yazīd, but the latter escaped and returned to the attack. ʿAdī then raised the troops of Baṣra and had a trench dug round the town to prevent the …

, a mountain outside Mecca, on the north side of the valley of Minā [ q.v.]. Yāḳūt, Muʿd̲j̲am al-buldān , ed. Beirut, ii, 72-4, enumerates several mountains of this name, and also gives a tradition that T̲h̲abīr was, with Ḥirāʾ [ q.v.] and T̲h̲awr, one of the three most significant mountains outside Mecca. It seems to have played a role in the ceremonies of the pre-Islamic ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ or pilgrimage outside Mecca. In Umayyad times, in the early 8th century A.D., the governor of Mecca K̲h̲ālid b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḳasrī [ q.v.], on the orders of Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Malik, piped water from a…

, Abū D̲j̲aʿfar Muḥammad b. ʿAlī (he also had the honorific name of D̲j̲āmal al-Dīn ), vizier of the Zangids; he had been carefully educated by his father, and at a very early age was given an official appointment in the dīwān al-ʿarḍ of the Sald̲j̲ūḳid sultan Maḥmūd. Subsequently he became one of the most intimate friends of Zangī, who made him governor of Naṣībīn and al-Raḳḳa and entrusted him with general supervision of the whole empire. After Zangī’s assassination he very nearly shared his master’s ¶ fate, but succeeded in leading the troops to Mosul. Zangī’s son, Sayf al-Dīn…

, nāṣiḥ al-dīn abū bakr aḥmad b. muḥammad al-anṣārī , Arab poet born at Arrad̲j̲ān in 460/1067, died in 544/1149-50 at Tustar or ʿAskar Mukram. Religious studies, pursued mainly at the Niẓāmiyya at Iṣfahān, enabled him to be nominated ḳāḍī of Tustar, but he early devoted himself to poetry, which he considered as a means of livelihood, and wrote panegyrics, addressed in particular to the ʿAbbāsid Caliph al-Mustaẓhir, in ḳaṣīda form, with the traditional nasīb . Although some critics praise his work, al-Arrad̲j̲ānī must be considered as a versifier of limited stature. His dīwān …

, name of various Turkish chiefs, particularly the Dānis̲h̲mendid prince known also as Amīr G̲h̲āzī [see dānis̲h̲mendids ] and the atabeg of Aleppo [see zangids ]. (Ed.)

(a.), literally “he who seeks”, in Ṣūfī mystical parlance, the novice or postulant or seeker after spiritual enlightenment by means of traversing ( sulūk ) the Ṣūfī path in obedience to a spiritual director ( murs̲h̲id , pīr , s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ [ q.vv.]). The equivalent Persian term is s̲h̲āgird , literally “pupil, apprentice”. The stages of the novice’s spiritual initiation are detailed in numerous Ṣūfī manuals and works touching on Ṣūfism, such as al-G̲h̲azālī’s Iḥyāʾ , and the term murīd figures in numerous titles of such works. One of the earliest manuals was the Ādāb al-murīdīn …

, Udaipur , the usual more recent name for the region in southwestern Rād̲j̲āsthān known in Islamic Indian times as Mēwāŕ, and the name also of its main town, actually founded in 966/1599. For this Rād̲j̲pūt state, which strenuously opposed the Muslims from the 8th/14th century onwards until its conquest by the Mug̲h̲al Akbar in the later 10th/16th century, see mēwāŕ . The subsequent Native State of Udaypūr in British India became part of the first Rajasthan Union in April 1948, and is now a District of the Rajasthan State of the Indian Union. (Ed.) Bibliography See that to mēwāŕ, and also Imper…

or maḥmūd , called muʿīn al-fuḳarāʾ , Transoxanian author of an important work on the religious leaders and saints of Buk̲h̲ārā, the Kītāb-i Mullāzādū or Kïtāb-i Mazārāt-i Buk̲h̲ārā , in which the cemeteries of the city and their occupants are described. Since the last date mentioned in the book is 814/1411-12, the author must have lived in the reigns of Tīmūr and S̲h̲āh-Ruk̲h̲ [see tīmūrids ]. From the number of extant manuscripts, the work was obviously popular in Central Asia. Extracts from it were first given by Barthold, Turkestan v epok̲h̲u Mongolskago nas̲h̲estviy̲a̲ , i, Teksty …

, pl. of ḥaḳḳ [ q.v.], legal rights or claims, and corresponding obligations, in the religious law of Islam. One distinguishes the ḥuḳūḳ Allāh , the rights or claims of Allāh, e.g., the ḥadd [ q.v.] punishments, and the ḥuḳūḳ al-ādamiyyīn , private, and essentially civil, rights or claims. Used of things, ḥuḳūḳ signifies the accessories necessarily belonging to them, such as the privy and the kitchen of a house, and servitudes in general; this term is of common occurrence in the legal formularies ( s̲h̲urūṭ [ q.v.]). In contemporary terminology, ḥuḳūḳ means merely “law” in the modern …

, Abū ʿAlī Ḥasan b. Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Tamīmī , known also under the name of al-Ḳāḍī al-Tāhartī (because he was for some time ḳāḍī of Tāhart), philologist, poet and man of letters of Ḳayrawān, where he died in 430/1038-9. He is remembered only for a risāla addressed to Abu ’l-Mug̲h̲īra Ibn Ḥazm [see ibn ḥazm ] in which he criticizes the Andalusians (text in Ibn Bassām, D̲h̲ak̲h̲īra . i, 111-3; al-Maḳḳarī, Analectes , ii, 108-9; 5- W. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, al-Muntak̲h̲ab al-madrasī Cairo 1944, 64-6; Eng. tr. P. de Gayangos, The history of the Mohammedan dynasties in Spain, London 1840, i, 168-70…

, “those who apply reasoning”. This term originally denotes the Muʿtazila [ q.v.], and it is probable that they coined it themselves. It occurs in Ibn Ḳutayba, Taʾwīl Muk̲h̲talif al-Ḥadīt̲h̲ , passim; al-Masʿudī speaks of ahl al-baḥt̲h̲ wa ’ l-naẓar ; synonyms are ahl al-kalām (in al-S̲h̲āfiʿī) and al-mutakallimūn (in al-As̲h̲ʿarī). Later, ahl (or aşḥāb ) al-naẓar came to denote the careful scholars who held a sound, well-reasoned opinion on any particular question. See also naẓar . (Ed.)

, the common name in modern Arabic, Persian, Turkish, etc. for administration. The term appears to have acquired its technical significance during the period of European influence. Muslim administration is discussed in the articles on administrative departments and services ( bāb-i-ʿālī , bayt al-māl , barīd , dīwān , dīwān-i humāyūn , istīfāʾ , ḳalam ḳānūn , rawk, taḥrīr , etc.); on officers and functionaries ( ʿāmil , ʿamīd , daftardār , ḥād̲j̲ib , kâhya , k̲h̲āzin , mus̲h̲īr , mus̲h̲rif , mustawfī , nāʾib , nāẓir , raʾīs al-kuttab, s̲h̲ādd , wakīl , wāsiṭa , wazīr , etc.); on scribes ( kātib …

, name of the Adriatic in Arabic geographical works. (Ed.)

, the name of a family of Berber “physicians”, whose ancestor, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad (d. 1070/1658-60) left the Sūs and settled at Fās; he must have used completely empirical methods, but nevertheless obtained significant results. Ibn S̲h̲akrūn [ q.v. in Suppl.] was the pupil of a certain Aḥmad b. Muḥammad Ādarrāḳ, who was probably the son of the above-mentioned person, but the best-known member of the family was this Aḥmad’s son, abu muḥammad ʿabd al-wahhāb b. aḥmad ( b. ca . 1077/1666, d. 28 Ṣafar 1159/22 March 1746), who was attached to Mawlāy Ismā…