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, Abū Ḥud̲h̲aifa al-G̲h̲azzāl, the chief of the Muʿtazila [q. v.]. Biographical facts concerning this personality are meagre, especially from early sources, yet without considerable divergencies. Born in Madīna in 80 (699-700), where he was a client of the Banū Ḍabba, or of the Banū Mak̲h̲zūm, he migrated to Baṣra, where he belonged to the circle of Ḥasan al-Baṣrī [cf. al-ḥasan b. abi ’l-ḥasan al-baṣrī], and entered into friendly relations with notable personalities such as Ḏj̲ahm b. Ṣafwān [q. v.] and Bas̲h̲s̲h̲ār b. Burd [q. v.]. With none of these three m…

(Banū), one of the three Jewish tribes of Yat̲h̲rib. The name differs from the usual forms of Arabic proper names but at the same time has nothing Hebrew about its type. Nothing certain is known regarding their immigration into Yat̲h̲rib. They possessed no land there but lived by trading. That their personal names known to us are for the most part Arabic says as little regarding their origin as the occurrence of Biblical names among them. But there seem to be no valid reasons for doubting their Jewish origin. In Yat̲h̲rib they lived in the south-west part of the town, near the Muṣallā and close …

Sulaimān b. Dāwūd b. al-Ḏj̲ārūd Abū Dāwūd, a collector of traditions and author of a Musnad. The nisba is derived from al-ṭayālisa, the plural of ṭailasān, a piece of clothing that covers the head-dress and sometimes also the shoulders (see Dozy, Dictionnaire détaillé des noms des vêtements chez les arabes, p. 278 sqq.). Al-Ṭayālisī was born at Baṣra in 133 (750-751) and died in 203 (818—819). It is also said that he reached the age of 72 years. He has handed down traditions on the authority of S̲h̲uʿba, Sufyān al-T̲h̲awrī and other well known tra…

(a.), a term denoting the toothbrush as well as the tooth-pick. The more usual term is siwāk (plural suwuk) which means also the act of cleansing the teeth. Neither of the two terms occurs in the Ḳurʾān. In Ḥadīt̲h̲ miswāk is not used, siwāk, on the other hand, frequently. In order to understand its use, it is necessary to know that the instrument consists of a piece of smooth wood, the end of which is incised so as to make it similar to a brush to some extent. The piece of wood used as a tooth-pick must have been smaller and thinner, ¶ as appears e.g. from the tradition in which it is related t…

, a. a.proper name denoting the eponym of Egypt, the ancestor of the Berbers and the Copts. In accordance with the Biblical genealogy (Genesis x. 1 sqq.) Miṣr is called the son of Ḥām, the son of Nūḥ. The Biblical origin of the pedigree appears clearly in the form Miṣrāʾim or Miṣrām (cf. Hebrew Miṣraim) which is found side by side with Miṣr. In some genealogies between Ḥām and Miṣr there is inserted Baisar, a name of which the origin is unknown to me. There exists, however, also quite a different genealogy, according to which Miṣrām is a son of Tablīl, one of the early heroes ( d̲j̲abābira), who rule…

(a.) felicity, good fortune. The root s-ʿ-d and some of its derivatives is associated in various connections with pre-Islāmic Arab conceptions. Its general meaning is given as “auspicious, fortunate ( y-m-n, opposite n-ḥ-s). The proper name Saʿd (feminine Su’ād, see the article saʿd) may therefore be synonymous with Hebrew names like Benjamin and Gad. Saʿd is also found as the name of a god; Wellhausen ( Reste arabischen Heidentums 2, p. 65) suggests that al-Saʿīda (a house round which the Arabs used to run) was originally an epithet of al-ʿUzzā. Saʿd followed by…

, covering, protection, shelter, especially at the ṣalāt, where sutra means the object, which the worshipper places in front of him or lays in the direction of the ḳibla whereby he shuts himself off in an imaginary area within which he is not disturbed by human or demoniacal influences. “The fictitious fencing off of an open place of prayer, the sutra, seems to have had among other objects that of warding off demons” (Wellhausen, Reste 2, p. 158). In one tradition the man who deliberately penetrates into this imaginary area is actually called a s̲h̲aiṭān (Buk̲h̲ārī, Ṣalāt, bāb too; cf. Aḥm…

(a.), infinitive V from the root h-d̲j̲-d which is one of the roots with opposed meanings ( aḍdād), as it signifies “sleep” and also “to be awake”, “to keep a vigil”, “to perform the night ṣalāt or the nightly recitation of the Ḳurʾān”. The latter two meanings have become the usual ones in Islām. The word occurs only once in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra xvii. 81: “And in a part of the night, perform a ṣalāt as a voluntary effort” etc., but the thing itself is often referred to. We are told of the pious (li. 17) that they sl…

(also briefly called al-Baḳīʿ), the cemetery of Medīna. The name denotes a field, which was originally covered with a kind of high growing black berry; there were several such Baḳīʿ’s in Medīna. The place was and is situated at the south-east end of the town, outside the modern town-wall through which a gateway, Bāb al-Baḳīʿ, gives admittance to the cemetery (see the map of Medīna in Caetani, Annali, ii. 1, p. 73). The first to be buried in al-Baḳī was ʿOt̲h̲mān b. Maẓʿūn, the ascetic companion of the Prophet; the latter’s daughters, the little Ibrāhīm, and his…

(a.), visit, in the religious sense the visit to a holy place or to the tomb of a saint, especially to Muḥammad’s tomb in the mosque of al-Madīna, which even under the Wahhābī rule is paid by those who perform the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ [q. v.]. The ziyāra paid to the tombs of the saints was among the bidaʾwhich were combated by Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb [cf. wahhābīya]. For details cf. W. R. van Diflelen, De leer der Wahhabieten, doctoral dissertation, Leyden 1927. That the Wahhābīs were not the first in Islām to question the legality of visiting tombs, and of the practices conne…

, Abū ʿĪsā Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā b. Sawra b. S̲h̲ahdād, the author ofone of the canonical or semi-canonical collections of traditions. The nisba al-Tirmid̲h̲ī connects him with Tirmid̲h̲, a place on the upper Āmū Daryā, at a distance of 6 leagues from Balk̲h̲ (about 37° Lat. N. and 67° Long. E. from Greenwich; cf. Ḳazwīnī, Nuzhat al-Ḳulūb, ed. and transl. Le Strange, G. M. S., xxiii., index, s. v.; Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, p. 440 sq. and map ix., facing p. 433), where he is said to have died in 279 (892—893); according to other reports, he died at Būg̲h̲,…

b. Hind, son of the Lak̲h̲mid prince al-Mund̲h̲ir and of Hind, a woman of the tribe of Kinda. After his father’s death he became “king” at al-Ḥira (554—570 A. D.). He was a warlike ruler and, like his house, very cruel. It is well-known how he sent the poets al-Mutalammis and Ṭarafa to his governor in Baḥrain, with letters ordering their death. By reason of his harsh character, he bore the surname of Muḍarriṭ al-Ḥid̲j̲āra (“he who makes stones crack”). He was also called Muḥarriḳ (“burning”). As …

(a., plur. rawātib), a word meaning what is fixed and hence applied to certain nonobligatory ṣalāts or certain litanies. The term is not found in the Ḳurʾān nor as a technical term in Ḥadīt̲h̲. On the first meaning see the article nāfila, p. 826a. As to the second, it is applied to the d̲h̲ikr which one recites alone, as well as to those which are recited in groups. We owe to M. Snouck Hurgronje a detailed description of the rawātib practised in Atchin. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjèhers, Batavia—Leyden 1893—1894, ii. 220 sqq. English transl, by O’Sullivan, The Acheh…

, the name of an individual ortribe which occupies the same position in Muslim genealogy as Aram in Biblical, as may be seen from a comparison of the Muslim series ʿŪṣ b. Iram b. Sām b. Nūḥ with the Biblical ʿŪṣ b. Aram b. Shem b. Noah. The Muslim line probably, like many others, entered historiography under Jewish influence and therefore gives us no new information regarding the dissemination of Aramaeans in Arabia. The name is identified with that of the Iram Ḏh̲āt al-ʿImād discussed below, th…

has exercised a considerable influence on the dogmatics of Islām; his tradition has been kept up especially in the school of al-Māturīdī [q. v.] and its adepts in Samarḳand. The only authentic document by Abū Ḥanīfa which has come down to us is his letter to ʿUt̲h̲mān al-Battī (unedited), in which he defends his Murd̲j̲itic [cf. al-murd̲j̲iʾa] views in an urbane way. The Fiḳh Akbar (II) which is ascribed to him in the Fihrist and by later tradition, is an ʿaḳīda representing an early stage of scholastic theology, possibly composed in the first half of the tenth century a. d. This work must be…

(the forms with the article are also found), the names of the two angels who examine and if necessary punish the dead in their tombs. To the ¶ examination in the tomb the infidels and the faithful — the righteous as well as the sinners — are liabie. They are set upright in their tombs and must state their opinion regarding Muḥammad. The righteous faithful will answer, that he is the Apostle of Allāh; thereupon they will be left alone till the Day of Resurrection. The sinners and the infidels, on the other hand, will have …

b. Barak̲h̲yā (Hebrew Asaf b. Berekyah), name of the alleged Wazīr of King Solomon. According to the legend he was Solomon’s confidant, and always had access to him. When the royal consort Ḏj̲arāda was worshipping idols Āṣaf delivered a public address in which he praised the apostles of God, Solomon among them but only for the excellent qualities he had manifested in his youth. Solomon in anger thereat took him to task, bnt was reproved for the introduction of idol-worship at the court. This was then done away with and the consort punished; the king became repentant. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliogra…

b. zaid b. ʿamr b. nufail ….. b. kaʿb b. luʾaiy, one of Muḥammad’s earliest companions. His mother was Fāṭima bint Baʿd̲j̲a b. Umaiya of the clan of Ḵh̲uzāʿa. His kunya is Abu ’l-Aʿwar or Abū T̲h̲awr. He was one of ʿUmar b. al-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb’s cousins and at the same time his brother-in-law through his wife, who was ʿUmar’s sister, as well as through ʿUmar’s wife who was his sister. He assumed Islām before Muḥammad entered the house of Zaid b. al-Aiḳam and ʿUmar’s conversion is said to have taken place under the influence of Saʿīd and his family. His father, Zaid b. ʿAmr, was one of the ḥanīf’s; he was muc…

, the prophet who, according to the Ḳurʾān, appeared among the ʿĀd [q. v.]. He is represented as one of their kinsmen ( ak̲h̲) and his genealogy (which is transmitted in various forms), therefore coincides in part with that of their founder ʿĀd. He is also identified with ʿĀbir (the Biblical ʿEber, the ancestor of the Hebrews); in another reference he is called the son of ʿĀbir [q. v.]. His figure is even more shadowy than the picture of his people and like every warner he is represented in the same position as Muḥamm…

, the Biblical Abraham, was, according to the Ḳurʾān (Sūra vi. 74), the son of Āzar, which name is apparently to be derived from Elazar, the name of his servant (cf. S. Fraenkel in Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellsch., lvi. 72). The Biblical names of Abraham’s ancestors: Tārik̲h̲ b. Nāḥūr b. Sārūg̲h̲ b. Arg̲h̲ū b. Fālig̲h̲ b. ʿĀbir b. S̲h̲ālik̲h̲ b. Ḳainān b. Arfak̲h̲s̲h̲ad b. Sām b. Nūḥ are found in al-T̲h̲aʿlabī, p. 44, and Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, i. 67, and this genealogy agrees perfectly with ¶ Genesis xi. 10—21 and Chronicles, i. 12—27. Ḳainān alone seems to have been inserted from Genesis v.…

(a.), intention. The acts of ceremonial law, obligatory or not, require to be preceded by a declaration by the performer, that he intends to perform such an act. This declaration, pronounced audibly or mentally, is called nīya. Without it, the act would be bāṭil [q. v.]. The nīya is required before the performance of the ʿibādāt, such as washing, bathing, prayer, alms, fasting, retreat, pilgrimage, sacrifice. “Ceremonial acts without nīya are not valid”, says G̲h̲azālī ( Iḥyāʾ, Cairo 1282, iv. 316). Yet a survey of the opinions of the lawyers regarding the nīya in conne…

or al-Masīḥ al-Dad̲j̲d̲j̲āl (rarely al-Kad̲h̲d̲h̲āb: Buk̲h̲ārī, Fitan, bāb 26 and al-Masīḥ al-ḍalāl: Ṭayālisī, N°. 2532), the Muslim Antichrist. The word is not found in the Ḳurʾān; it is probably an Aramaic loan-word. In Syriac it is found as an epithet of the Antichrist, e. g. in Matthew xxiv. 24 where the Pes̲h̲itta translates ψευδόχριστον by mes̲h̲īḥē daggālē. We also find in Syriac nebīyā daggālā “pseudo-prophet”, s̲h̲āhedā daggālā “false witness” etc. On the other hand, the existence in Arabic of the verb dad̲j̲ala with the meaning “to deceive”, given in the lexicons w…

, Bilpai or Pilpai is the form usual ¶ in the west, of the name of the author of the Kalīla wa-Dimna; this form may be traced to the Arabic Bīdbā or Bīdbāh. The Syriac version of the book (compiled from the Pahlavi) has the name Bidug or Bidwag. This form is said by Benfey to be derived from the Sanskrit vidyāpati which means “lord of knowledge”. All that we know of this (legendary) personage is given in the preface by Bahnūd b. Sahwān, alias ʿAlī b. al-S̲h̲āh al-Fārisī, to the Arabic version of the Kalīla wa-Dimna. This can only be briefly given here and the reader may be referred for oth…

the name of the fourth letter of the Arabic alphabet with the numerical value 500. Its form is a horizontal stroke, curved upwards at its ends, with three dots above it. By these three dots it is distinguished from the third letter of the alphabet, tāʾ [q. v.], which has two dots only. This similarity explains also the place of t̲h̲āʾ immediately after tāʾ. Of the other Semitic alphabets it is only the South-Arabic which has a special form for the sound t̲h̲. Etymologically t̲h̲āʾ corresponds to Canaanitic , Aramaic (early-Aramaic ), Assyrian s̲h̲, Aethiopic . In Arabian its place is some…

, (plur. ḥirāb) spear. According to the Arab lexicographers, the ḥarba is smaller than the rumḥ and larger than the ʿanaza [q. v.]. It has the same function as the latter in Muslim ceremonial; we therefore find in some traditions that in Muḥammad’s time an ʿanaza, in others a ḥarba was used as sutra [q. v.] (cf. the chapter sutrat al-muṣallī in the different collections of tradition). It has been supposed that the erection of a sutra at the salāṭ had originally a protective object; in agreement with this is the fact that, according to some traditions, when the Prophet went…

, the Biblical prophet Elias, is twice mentioned in the Ḳurʾān. In; Sūra vi. 83 he is mentioned with Zakarīyāʾ, Yaḥyā, and ʿĪsā as one of the ṣāliḥūn without further details. In Sūra xxxvii. 123—130 his history is related in the fashion which is stereotyped for all stories of prophets in the Ḳurʾān. That Muḥammad however knew something more of him is clear from the mention of the Baʿl, which is differently interpreted by the commentators, sometimes as lord, sometimes as an idol who has given his name to the town of Baalbe…

(a.), board, tablet; the first meaning is found in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra, liv. 13, where Noah’s ark is called d̲h̲āt alwāḥ. The second meaning is that of lawh as writing material, e.g. the tablets of the lawḥ (Sura, vii. 142, 149, 153, where the plural alwāḥ is used; see Lisān, iii. 421). Al-dawāt wa ’l-lawḥ (Buk̲h̲ārī, Tafsīr al-Ḳurʾān, Sūra, iv., bāb 18) corresponds to our “paper and ink”. The expression mā baina ’l-lawḥain “what lies between the two boards” is found in Ḥadīt̲h̲, to describe the whole Ḳurʾān (Buk̲h̲ārī, Tafsīr, Sūra lix., bāb 4; Libās, bāb 84); cf. mā baina ’l-daffatain (Buk̲h̲ār…

(a.), servant; in Turkish often used with the secondary meaning of “eunuch”. The word is applied to male and female, freemen or slaves alike; as to the latter see the art. ʿabd. The collective is k̲h̲adam and the plural k̲h̲uddām. Ḵh̲ādim al-Ḥaramain al-s̲h̲arīfain (servant of the two sacred areas i. e. Mekka and Medīna) was one of the titles of the Sulṭān of Turkey (see Barthold, Isl. vi. 1916, p. 379, sqq.). There have always been free servants alongside of slaves in Islām. Anas b. Mālik [q. v.] entered Muḥammad’s service as a youth (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ḏj̲ihād, bāb 74 etc.) and he records it…

, “the people of the ditch”, mentioned in Sura, 85, 4 et seq. The Muslim historians relate as follows in regard to this passage: King Ḏh̲ū Nuwās of Yemen was a devotee of Judaism and intolerant of the Christians. He bade them choose between Judaism and death. The Christians preferred martyrdom. Thereupon the king caused a long ditch to be constructed in which they were burned alive. This story is partly confirmed by Christian sources and enlarged upon. When the Kūs̲h̲ites were unable, since winter had set in, to send a viceroy to Yemen, Ḏh̲ū Nuwās (he is variou…

b. Mālik Abu Ḥamza, one of the most prolific traditionists. After the Hid̲j̲ra his mother gave him to the prophet as servant; according to his own statement he was then ten years of age. He was present at Badr, but took no part in the battle, and is therefore not counted among the combatants. He remained in Muḥammad’s service up to the time of the prophets death, later he took part in the wars of conquest. He also played small parts in the civil wars. In the year 65 (684) he officiated as imām of t…

, 24th letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value of forty. On different forms of the letter cf. arabia, plate 1. In some dialects of Southern Arabia and of tribes coming from that region, mīm was and is used as the article of determination, side by side with l. A well known tradition is put into the mouth of a man from Southern Arabia in the following form: Laisa min am-birri am-ṣiyāmu fi ’m-safar. Cf. Ibn Yaʿīs̲h̲, ed. Jahn, ii. 1331; Landberg, Etudes sur les dialectes de l’Arabie méridionale, 11/ii. 281—290. (A. J. Wensinck)

(a.), revelation [cf. also ḳorʾān, muḥammad]. As to the etymology of the word, cf. Jewish-Aramaic “to hasten”, Aethiopic “to go round, to recognise”, and the nonreligious meaning ilhām bi-surʿa, given by the Dictionary of Technical Terms; on the use of the verb by the poets, cf. Lisān, s. v. As a religious technical term it is distinguished from inspiration ( ilhām, q. v.) of saints, artists and others, from tanzīl, which chiefly denotes the object of revelation and from inzāl which denotes the sending down of revelation from heaven and from its heavenly archetype [see umm al-kitāb], in so…

, Mary. The Arabic form of the name is identical with and μαριάμ which are used in the Syriac and in the Greek Biblei in the New as well as in the Old Testament. In the latter it corresponds to the Hebrew . This name, like other ones with the same suffix, such as ʿAmram, Bilʿam, points to the region between Palestine and Northwestern Arabia as its home. According to Muslim interpretation the name means “the pious” ( al-ʿābida; cf. the commentaries on sūra iii. 31). It occurs frequently in the Ḳurʾān in the combination [ʿĪsā] Ibn Maryam “[Jesus] the son of Mary” (sūra ii. 81, 254; iii. 31 sqq.; iv. 156,…

, the nameofthe Mosque of Mecca. The name is already found in the pre-Muḥammadan period (Horovitz, Koranische Studien, p. 140 sq.) in Ḳais b. al-Ḵh̲atīm, ed. Kowalski, v. 14: “By Allāh, the Lord of the Holy Masd̲j̲id and of that which is covered with Yemen stuffs, which are embroidered with hempen thread” (?). It would be very improbable if a Medīna poet by these two references meant anything other than the Meccan sanctuary. The expression is also fairly frequent in the Ḳurʾān after the second Meccan period (Horovitz, op. cit.) and in various connections: it is a grave sin on the pa…

, apostle. The word is borrowed from the Ethiopie, where ḥawāryā has the same meaning (see Nöldeke, Beiträge zur sem. Sprachwiss., p. 48). The derivations from the Arabic “he who wears white clothes” etc. are erroneous. Tradition delights to give foreign epithets which were current among the “people of the scripture”, to the earliest missionaries of Islām. Abū Bakr is called al-Ṣiddīḳ, ʿUmar al-Fārūḳ, al-Zubair Ibn al-ʿAwwām al-Ḥawārī. At the same time we find the collective name al-Ḥawārīyūn for twelve individuals, who are said to have been appointed naḳībs of the Medīnese at the …

, the number seven, which has a special significance for Muslims as for other — Semitic and non-Semitic — peoples. The preference for this number in various conceptions and actions goes back in part to borrowing from Jews, Christians and other peoples but in part was already indigenous among the pre-Muḥammadan Arabs. The latter is doubtless true of the sevenfold ṭawāf around the Kaʿba, the sevenfold course between al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa (cf. saʿy) and the sevenfold casting of stones at the Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ (see d̲j̲amra i. 1012 sq.). Another series of these beliefs is connected with pecu…

(a.), Discrimination, revelation, salvation. The word is found in Arabic literature as an original Arabic word and also as one borrowed from the Aramaic. The meaning of the word in various passages in the Ḳorʾān cannot always be exactly determined; Muḥammad made a wide use of it; he was fond of words with a long vowel in the last syllable on account of their solemn sound. 1. The Arabic word means separation, distinction, proof. Probably,however, this meaning is not found in the Ḳorʾān, although the commentators constantly expound it as having the theological s…

, name of a voluntary fast-day which is observed on the 10. Muḥarram. When Muḥammad came to Medīna he adopted from the jews amongst other days the ʿĀs̲h̲ūrāʾ. The name is obviously the Hebraic with the Aramaic determinative ending; in Lev. 16, 29 it is used of the great Day of Atonement. Muḥammad retained the Jewish custom in the rite, that is, the fast was observed on this day from sunset to sunset, and not as was usually the case only during the day. When in the year 2 Muḥammad’s relations with the Jews became strained Ramaḍâ…

Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī.To the number of his printed works must be added Maḳālāt al-Islāmīyīn, ed. H. Ritter (i., Constantinople 1928; i.—ii., ibid. 1929—1930, in Btbliotheca Islamica, I a., b.). This work consists of three parts: a. (i. 1—289) a survey of the Muslim sects and dissensions (S̲h̲īʿa, Ḵh̲awārid̲j̲, Murd̲j̲iʾa, Muʿtazila, Mud̲j̲assima, Ḏj̲ahmīya, Ḍirārīya, Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ārīya, Bakrīya, Nussāk); b. (i. 290—300) the creed of the orthodox community ( aṣḥāb al-ḥadīt̲h̲ wa-ahl al-sunna) and the slight deviations of al-Ḳaṭṭān, Zuhair al-At̲h̲arī, Abū Muʿād̲h̲ al-Tawmanī; c. (ii…

(a.), part. IV of s-l-m, denotes the adherent of Islām [q. v.]. The term has become current in some European languages (also in the forms moslim, moslem), as a noun or as an ¶ adjective or as both, side by side with Muhammadan (in different forms). It has replaced Musulman (in different forms), except in French, where the latter term is used as a noun and as an adjective. The origin of musulman is probably muslin with the ending ān of the adjective in Persian. In some countries, e. g. Germany and the Netherlands, popular etymology has taken man for the vernacular “Mann, man”, whence the plural forms M…

, “the people of the ditch” or “of the well”, are twice mentioned in the Ḳorʾān (Sūra 25, 40; 50, 12), along with ʿĀd, T̲h̲amūd and other unbelievers. The commentators know nothing for certain about them, and so give widely divergent explanations and all manner of fantastic accounts. Some take al-Rass to be a geographical name (cf. Yāḳūt, sub voce); some hold that these people, a remnant of T̲h̲amūd, cast ( rassa) their prophet Ḥanẓala in to a well ( rass) and were consequently exterminated. It is also related that the mountain of the bird ʿAnḳāʾ [q. v.] was situated in the…

(Ḵh̲id̲h̲lān, a.), nomen actionis from the root k̲h̲-d̲h̲-l “to leave in the lurch”, a technical term in Muḥammadan theology, applied exclusively to Allāh when He withdraws His grace or help from man. The disputes regarding it first appear in connection with the quarrel over ḳadar [q. v.]. A starting point is found in Sūra iii. 154: “but if He abandon you to yourselves ( yak̲h̲d̲h̲ulkum), who will help you after Him? Let the faithful therefore trust in God”. On this al-Rāzī observes: “The Companions deduce from this verse that belief is exclusively a result …

(a.), impure, opp. ṭāhir, cf. ṭahāra. According to the S̲h̲āfiʿī doctrine, as systematised by al-Nawawī ( Minhād̲j̲, i. 36 sqq.; cf. G̲h̲azālī, al-Wad̲j̲īz, i. 6 sq.), the following are the things impure in themselves ( nad̲j̲āsāt): wine and other spirituous drinks, dogs, swine, maita, blood and excrements; milk of animals whose flesh is not eaten. Regarding these groups the following may be remarked. On wine and other spirituous drinks cf. the artt. k̲h̲amr and nabīd̲h̲. — Dogs are not declared impure in the Ḳurʾān; on the contrary, in the description of the sleepers…

(a.), monasticism. The term is derived from rāhib [q. v.]; it occurs in the Ḳurʿān once only, in a passage (sūra lvii. 27) that has given rise to divergent interpretations: “And we put in the hearts of those who followed Jesus, compassion and mercy, and the monastic state, they instituted the same (we did not prescribe it to them) only out of a desire to please God. Yet they observed not the same as it ought truly to have been observed. And we gave unto such of them as believed, their reward; but many of them were wicked doers”. According to some of the exegists the verb “we put” has two obje…

(a.), infinitive ivth from the root ḥ-r-m, which has the meaning of “warding off” ( manʿ), as the Lisān, xv. 9 says: “to declare a thing ḥaram” or “to make ḥaram”. (The opposite is iḥlāl “to declare permitted”). The word iḥrām has however become a technical term for “sacred state”; one who is in this state is called muḥrim. For example, a person fasting may be called muḥrim. The word iḥrām, however, is only used for two states: the sacred state in which one performs ¶ the ʿumra and ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲, and the state of consecration during the ṣalāt. Thirdly the word can be used of the dress in which the ḥad̲j̲d̲…

, a religious technical term, with various meanings, regarding the fundamental signification of which there is no unanimity among the lexicographers. “Refraining from speaking”, “the prayer during the ṣalāt”, “humility and recognition that one’s relation to Allāh is that of a creature to his creator”, “standing” — these are the usual dictionary definitions which are also found in the commentaries on different verses of the Ḳurʾān where ḳunūt or derivatives from the root ḳ-n-t occur. There is hardly one of these for which the context provides a rigid definition of the…

, two angels who are mentioned in the Ḳorʾān (Sūra, 2, 9 6) in the words “and it was not Sulaimān that was an unbeliever but the devils, who taught men sorcery and that which had been revealed to the two angels in Bābil, Hārūt and Mārūt; but they taught no one without saying “we are but a temptation, therefore be not unbelieving”. People learn from them means by which they may separate man and wife” etc. A number of stories are attached to this passage, the main outlines being as follows. When the angels in heaven saw the sinful children of men, they spoke contemptuously of them before ¶ Allāh. But He …

, a term of uncertain meaning which occurs twice in the Ḳurʾān, namely in Sūra xv. 87: “and we have brought thee seven of the mat̲h̲ānī and the noble Ḳurʾān”, and Sūra xxxix. 24: “Allāh sent down the most beautiful recital, a book which is in harmony with itself, mat̲h̲ānī, at which the skin of those who fear their Lord creeps”. The interpretation of the word is made more difficult by the fact that in the latter passage it seems to mean the Ḳurʾān itself, in the former, on the other hand, something similar to the Ḳurʾān. In Ṭabarī ( Tafsīr, xiv. 32 sqq.; cf. xxiii. 124 sq.) we find the following opin…

b. idrīs, ancestor of the S̲h̲arīfs of Mekka from the beginning of the 13th century a. d. onwards. In 1201, 1202 or 1203 a. d. he overpowered the then ruling family of the Hawās̲h̲im and established his authority in the Holy City. The last S̲h̲arīfs of the Banū Hās̲h̲im had lived in continual family strife and quarrels. Meanwhile Ḳatāda (for his pedigree cf. Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, i., Stammtafel I between p. 24 and 25 and Stammtafel II between p. 74 and 75) had enlarged his estates from Yanbuʿ southward in the direction of Mekka, thus preparing his attack o…

(a.,plur. rusul), messenger, apostle. The word is found in Arabic literature with the profane sense of envoy, messenger. Here we are only concerned with its religious acceptance. According to the Ḳurʾān, there is a close relation between the apostle and his people ( umma; q. v.). To each umma God sends only one apostle (Sūra x. 48; xvi. 38; cf. xxiii. 46; xl. 5). These statements are parallel to those which mention the witness whom God will take from each umma at the Day of Judgment (Sūra iv. 45; xxviii. 75 and cf. the descriptions of the rasūl who will cross the bridge to …