(t., literally “Hearth of the Turks”), a cultural and social organisation in late Ottoman and early Republican Turkey, formally instituted in 1912 and enduring until 1931. It aimed to spread Turkish nationalist ideology through its cultural and social activities in the Ottoman Empire. Its journal Türk Yurdu (“Homeland of the Turks”) was widely read, and at the time it was closed down by the Kemalist state, it had over 30,000 members and 267 branches in Anatolia. In 1932 it was replaced by the Halk Evleri [see k̲h̲alḳevi ] in towns and Halk Odaları in large village…

, Ottoman official, educator, Arab Minister and theorist of Arab nationalism, d. 1968. He was born in Ṣanʿāʾ, Yemen in 1880 to an Arab family of Aleppo. Both his father and mother were of prominent Aleppine mercantile families. His father, Muḥammad Hilāl al-Ḥuṣrī (b. 1840), served as an Ottoman judge after his graduation from al-Azhar University, becoming at the time of his son’s birth Director of the Court of Criminal Appeals in the Yemeni capital. Owing to the pattern of his father’s shifting appointments …

( Pas̲h̲a ), Meḥmed (1872-1921), a moving spirit in the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP, Ittiḥād we Teraḳḳī D̲j̲emʿiyyeti [ q.v.]) before and after the 1908 revolution, minister and Grand Vizier (1917-18). He was born in the border town of Edirne to a lower middle-class family. His father died when he was eighteen, and he became the family’s bread winner, entering the postal service as a clerk. Ṭalʿat also taught Turkish and learned French at the Alliance Israëlite Universelle school in Edirne. He became active in the underground opposition against Sultan ʿAbd ül-Ḥamīd II [ q.v.] and …

, Ri̊ḍā Tewfīk , modern Turkish orthography Riza Tevfi̇k Bölükbaşi , Turkish poet and writer (1866-1949). He was born in D̲j̲isr-i Muṣṭafā Pas̲h̲a in Rumelia (Dimitrovgrad in present-day Bulgaria, formerly Čaribrod) while his father Ḵh̲ōd̲j̲a Meḥmed Tewfīḳ Efendi, a civil servant and teacher, was ḳāyi̊maḳām there. His mother, a Circassian slave girl, died when Riḍā was eleven years old. His grandfather Aḥmed Durmus̲h̲ Bölükbas̲h̲i̊ was a guerilla leader from Debra in Albania who had fought against the Greeks during the rising in the Morea ([Feridun] Kandemir, Kendi ağzından Rıza …

, ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd , Syrian Arab politician and journalist, author of numerous writings advocating political, social and religious reform ¶ [see iṣlāḥ. i.]. The date of his birth in Ḥimṣ is not certain; in Arabic sources, it ranges from 1855 to 1863 or even 1871 (see Tarabein, 118 n. l, and ʿAllūs̲h̲, Madk̲h̲al , 12). He was born into a Sunnī family claiming descent from al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī and Fāṭima [ q.vv.], and from the latter’s honorific title, al-Zahrāʾ , the family derived its nisba . Over several generations, it had held the position of naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf [ q.v.] in Ḥimṣ. ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd receiv…

(1863-1918), Ottoman statesman, diplomat, and Grand Vizier (1910-11), was born in Bes̲h̲ikṭās̲h̲. He was the son of Remzī Efendi, who had been mutaṣarri̊f of Saḳi̊z (Chios) and President of the Bes̲h̲ikṭās̲h̲ municipal council. Ibrāhīm Ḥaḳḳī began his secondary education in a local school and then went to the Civil Service Training School ( Mekteb-i Mülkiyye ) where he completed his higher education. At the same time he had been learning French and English from private tutors. He graduated in 1882 and joined the secretariat of …

G̲h̲āzī Aḥmed , Ottoman Turkish general and statesman, was born in Bursa on 30 November/1 December 1839, the son of a local notable prominent in the silk trade. On his father’s death, his uncle enrolled him in the local military school from where he advanced to the War College ( Mekteb-i Ḥarbiyye ) in Istanbul. He graduated in March 1860, then trained as a staff officer and emerged in 1861 as staff captain. He distinguished himself during campaigns in Herzogevina and Montenegro (1861-3) and was appointed instructor in the “a…

(1856-1913), Ottoman general, war minister and Grand-Vizier (1913), was born in Bag̲h̲dād. He came from a Georgian family long settled in ʿIrāḳ and thoroughly Arabised, so much so that he was known as ʿArab Maḥmūd at the War Academy. His father Ketk̲h̲udāzāde Süleymān was a former mutaṣarrif of Baṣra, and his mother an Arab lady of the ancient house of al-Farūk̲h̲ī. After completing his early education in Bag̲h̲dād he entered the War Academy in Istanbul, graduating in 1882 at the head of his class. He was appointed to …

modern Turkish Mehmet Akif Ersoy (1873-1936), Turkish poet, patriot and proponent of Pan-Islamism. He was born in Istanbul of a father, Meḥmed Ṭāhir, originally from Ipek in northern Albania (modern Peć in Yugoslavia) and a mother of Buk̲h̲āran origin. He was educated in the classical Islamic tongues, Turkish, Arabic and Persian, in Istanbul, graduating from the Fātiḥ rüs̲h̲diyye or secondary ¶ school and continuing his higher education at the School of Political Science and then the Civilian Veterinary School. He served as a veterinary surgeon in the Mi…

, Ürgüplü (1283-1339/1867-1921), S̲h̲eyk̲h̲ ül-Islām of the Ottoman Empire. A member of an old established local ʿulamāʾ family, he was born at Ürgüp as a son of ʿAbd Allāh ʿAwnī Efendi. Members of the family were the administrator of the waḳf of the town’s principal mosque complex, the ulu d̲j̲āmiʿ founded by Ḳaramānog̲h̲lu Ibrāhīm Bey [see ḳaramānog̲h̲ullari̊ ], K̲h̲ayrī received his early education locally inter alia in Arabic, Persian and Turkish classical literature and calligraphy. His elder brother, an Inspector of Justice in the wilāyet of Sivas [ q.v.], supervised his cont…

(originally named Meḥmed Tewfīḳ, Fikret being the pen-name which he assumed), late Ottoman Turkish poet, b. 1867, d. 1915 in Istanbul. He was the son and the second child of Ḥüseyin Efendi, from a Čerkes family of notables of Çankırı, and the governor of ʿAkkā, and of K̲h̲adīd̲j̲e Refīʿa, from the island of Chios. He started his elementary education in the Aksaray Maḥmūdiyye Wālide Rüs̲h̲diyyesi, and moved to Galatasaray Lycée at nine. His mother died in 1879, after which he and his sister were …

, thirty-fifth and penultimate Ottoman Sultan, was born on 2 November 1844, the son of Sultan ʿAbd al-Mad̲j̲id [ q.v.]. During the reign of his brother ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd II [ q.v.] he lived in seclusion: his very existence inspired ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd with such terror that even the mention of the name Reshād had to be avoided in his presence (cf. Snouck Hurgronje, Verspreide Geschriften , ii, 232). He was a man of mild character, who owed his accession to the throne (27 April 1909) to the victory of the Young Turks (the Committee of Union and Progress [see ittiḥād we teraḳḳī d̲j̲emʿiyyeti …

(Muṣṭafā Kemāl), the founder and first President of the Turkish Republic, was born at Salonica 1881 and died at Istanbul on 10th November 1938. He lost his father, ʿAlī Riḍā, whilst still very young, so that it was his mother, Zübeyde Ḵh̲ānīm, who saw to his education. When twelve years of age, he entered the military preparatory school at Salonica, where one of his teachers made him take the name of Kemāl in addition to Muṣṭafā. In 1895 he entered the Military School of Monastir, then in 1899 t…

Young Turk soldier and statesman (1881-1922). Enwer was born in the Dīwānyolu quarter of Istanbul, on 22 November 1881, the eldest of six children of Aḥmed bey, then a minor civil servant, and his wife ʿĀʾis̲h̲e. The family was from Manastir (Bitolj) in Macedonia, and moved there again when Enwer was a boy. After completing his secondary schooling there, Enwer entered the military academy (Mekteb-i Ḥarbiyye) in Istanbul, completing both the regular officers’ training course and the advanced general staff course. He graduated second in his class on 5 ¶ December 1902 (the first was hi…

, ʿalī (1867-1922), Turkish writer, journalist and politician. His father Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Aḥmed Efendi had come as a young man from a village near Çankırı in Central Anatolia to the capital and had made a fortune as a wax-maker and had become the warden of his gild. ʿAlī Riḍā (as ʿAlī Kemāl was called until his student days, see below) was born in 1867 in the Süleymāniye district of Istanbul, to his father’s second (Circassian) wife and grew up in a traditional conservative family atmosphere. After attending the local schools, he entered the School of Political Science ( Mekteb-i Mülkiye …

, Ottoman politician, official and journalist: editor of the weekly (later daily) Mīzān [ q.v.] and for some time leader of the Ittiḥad we Teraḳḳī D̲j̲emʿiyyeti [ q.v.]; lecturer in history at the Mekteb-i Mülkiyye and in the Dār al-Muʿallimīn, commisioner in the Public Debt administration and member of the S̲h̲ūrā-yi Dewlet [ q.v.]; political essayist, author of several history books, novelist and playwright (1854-1917). Murād is one of the most colourful, and controversial, figures of the Ḥamīdian era: a radical idealist in much of his political…

, the Ottoman Turkish name for classical and early Byzantine Thessalonike, modern Greek Thessaloniki, conventional form Salonica; the largest city of Macedonia, on the gulf of the same name, to the east of the Vardar river mouth. The city has always possessed a large and secure port, and was located on the Via Egnatia connecting Durazzo (Durrës) with Byzantium. In the 5th/11th century, it is first named Salonikion, from which all variant names derive: Ṣalūnīk or Ṣalūnīḳ in Arabic, Solun in Bulga…

, whose full name was Muḥammad Ras̲h̲īd b. ʿAlī Riḍā b. Muḥammad S̲h̲ams al-Dīn b. Muḥammad Bahāʾ al-Dīn b. Munlā (i.e. Mullā) ʿAlī K̲h̲alīfa (1865-1935), one of the most productive and influential authors of Islamic reform [see iṣlāḥ ], of Pan-Islamism [ q.v.] and also, to a certain extent, of Arab nationalism [see Ḳawmiyya ]. His name is connected with the journal al-Manār [ q.v.] in the first place, whose editor he was from its foundation in 1898 till his death. Ras̲h̲īd Riḍā was born on 27 D̲j̲umādā I 1282/23 September 1865 in Ḳalamūn, a village near Tripoli (Ṭarābulus al-S̲h̲ām [ q.v.]) on…

, in modern Turkish Mehmet Emin Yurdakul (1869-1944), Turkish poet and patriot, the pioneer of modern Turkish poetry in spoken Turkish and syllabic metre. He was born in the Bes̲h̲iktas̲h̲ district of Istanbul on 13 May 1869. The family originated from Zekeriyyā Köyü, a village near Lake Terkos, in Eastern Thrace, some 30 miles north-west of Istanbul. His grandfather Ḥalīm Ag̲h̲a was a trawler owner. His father Ṣāliḥ Ag̲h̲a, later called Ṣāliḥ Reʾīs (Captain) when he owned a large trawler rowed …

, fourteen times Prime Minister of ʿIrāḳ under the monarchy (1921-58) and one of the most robust Arab politicians of his generation, was born in Bag̲h̲dād in 1888, the son of a minor administrative official, and was killed at the hands of a hostile crowd in Bag̲h̲dād on the day after the ʿIrāḳī Revolution of 14 July 1958. Nūrī attended military schools in Bag̲h̲dād and Istanbul, receiving his commission in 1906; after four years soldiering in ʿIrāḳ, he returned to the Staff College in Istanbul, …