Shaykh Muḥammad Taqī Āqā Najafī Iṣfahānī (1846–1914) was a prominent if controversial mujtahid who played an active role in the politics of Isfahan. His role during the Constitutional Revolution was ambivalent and evasive, showing himself neither as revolutionary nor activist. Under the city’s Bakhtiārī regime since 1909, he managed to maintain a position of influence, but had to act more carefully and indirectly. Born on 22 Rabīʿ II 1262/19 April 1846) to a family of clerics in Isfahan who were descended t…

2. À partir de 1914. Au cours du XXe siècle, Mas̲h̲had est devenue une métropole régionale (2 millions d’habitants en 1996), capitale de la très vaste province du Ḵh̲urāsān, bien intégrée à la vie économique et politique de l’Iran, tout en gardant son caractère de ville de pèlerinage dominée par le renforcement de l’autorité économique et politique de l’ Astāna ḳuds Riḍāvi (administration du waḳf du sanctuaire, probablement le plus important du monde musulman). En 1914, malgré son importance religieuse, Mas̲h̲had était une ville en marge de l’Iran (Adamec, s.v). La population (70 00…

(pl. marād̲j̲iʿ-i taḳlid , Pers. for Ar. mard̲j̲aʿ/marād̲j̲iʿ al-taḳlīd ), title and function of a hierarchal nature denoting a Twelver Imām S̲h̲īʿī jurisconsult ( muad̲j̲tahid , faḳīh ) who is to be considered during his lifetime, by virtue of his qualities and his wisdom, a model for reference, for “imitation” or “emulation”—a term employed to an increasing extent by English-speaking authors—by every observant Imāmī S̲h̲īʿī (with the exception of mud̲j̲tahids ) on all aspects of religious practice and law. As in the case of other institutions, the history of this function (called mar…

, Muḥammad b. Sulaymān (885 ?-963/1480?-1556), (in Turkish Fuzūlī) one of the most illustrious authors of Classical Turkish literature. He was born in ʿIrāḳ at the time of the Aḳ-Ḳoyunlu (White Sheep Dynasty) domination, probably at Karbalā, although Bag̲h̲dād, Ḥilla, Nad̲j̲af, Kirkūk, Manzil and Hīt are also mentioned as his birthplace. It is reported on uncertain authority that his father was muftī of Ḥilla, that he was taught by one Raḥmat Allāh, that he first took to poetry when he fell in love with this teacher’s daughter and th…

, Persian, “army commander”, Arabized form isfahsalār , iṣbahsalār : the title given to commanders-in-chief and general officers in the armies of many states of the central and eastern mediaeval Islamic world. On the component sālār and its Middie Persian origins, see sālār. The compound spāhsālār is already attested in Pāzand (i.e. Middle Persian transcribed from Pahlavi into Avestan script), e.g. in the 9th century ¶ S̲h̲kand-gumānik vičār (Hübschmann, Armenische Grammatik , 235). i. The Islamic world excepting India The Ispahsālār as a military leader appears to be the …

, a mountainous peninsula on the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea. The northern part of Mangi̊s̲h̲lak (the Buzači peninsula) is a lowland covered with small salt-marshes. In the central part, the Mangi̊stau mountains stretch from northwest to southeast for ca. 100 miles; they consist of three ranges, Southern and Northern Aktau and karatau, the last one running between the first two. The highest peak (in the karatau) is only 1,824 feet. To the south of the mountains lies the Mangi̊s̲h̲lak Plateau. From the east, the peninsula borders…

(a.), pl. ruʾasāʾ, de raʾs, «tête», désigne le «chef», ou «leader» d’un groupe identifié (politique, religieux, juridique, tribal ou autre). Le terme remonte aux temps préislamiques et a été employé en divers sens à différentes époques de l’histoire de l’Islam, soit pour définir les fonctions du possesseur d’une rīʾāsa, ou comme titre honorifique ( laḳab [ q.v.]). 1. Dans le sens de «maire» dans les pays arabes centraux. Ici, le titre de raʾīs était le plus souvent affecté au chef d’un village, d’une ville ou d’un district urbain. Il apparaît comme une sorte de «mai…

, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Murtaḍā, bien qu’inconnu en Occident, est considéré comme un mud̲j̲tahid s̲h̲īʿite dont l’autorité religieuse, largement reconnue dans le monde s̲h̲īʿite, n’a pas encore été surpassée. Né en 1214/1799 dans une famille cléricale, mais pauvre, de Dizfūl (Sud de l’Iran) qui faisait remonter sa généalogie au Compagnon du Prophète Ḏj̲ābir b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Anṣārī, il fit des études traditionnelles et, avec son père Muḥammad Amīn, se rendit dans les villes saintes du ʿIrāḳ. A Karbalāʾ, il suivit les …

(t.), ciel; Dieu. Dans les dialectes de l’est, la vocalisation est d’ordinaire palatale : čag̲h̲atāy: tengri (écrit ) et des formes analogues dans les autres dialectes. Il convient de noter les formes trisyllabiques en téleutique ( täñärä) et dans le dialecte de l’Altai ( täñäri); le dialecte tatar de Kazan présente à côté de tängri (Dieu) un mot täri = image de saint, icône (et aussi le nom propre täri-birdi où Täri signifie naturellement «Dieu»). Les dialectes og̲h̲uz (osmanh, azéri, et turkmène) ont une vocalisation non-palatale, de même que le yakoutique ( tañara) et le chouvash ( tură<…

, recueil de poésie ou de prose [voir ʿArabiyya, Īrān (litt.), Turk (litt.), Urdū (litt.), S̲h̲iʿr], registre ou bureau. Les sources ne sont pas d’accord sur l’étymologie du terme: les unes lui attribuent une origine persane, dēv «fou» ou «diable» appliqué aux secrétaires, d’autres le font ¶ venir de l’arabe dawwana «recueillir» ou «enregistrer», de là «collection de pièces ou de feuilles» (voir al-Ḳal-ḳas̲h̲andī, ṣubḥ, I, 90; LA, XVII, 23-4; al-Ṣūlī, Kuttāb, 187; al-Māwardī, al- Aḥkām al- sulṭāniyya, 175; al-Ḏj̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, Wuzarāʾ, 16-17; cf. al-Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ, 449). Cepe…

(pl. marād̲j̲iʿ-i taḳlīd, P., pour A. mard̲j̲aʿ/marād̲j̲iʿ al-taḳlīd), titre et fonction à valeur hiérarchique désignant un jurisconsulte ( mud̲j̲tahid, faḳīh) s̲h̲īʿite imāmite duodécimain qui doit être considéré de son vivant, en raison de ses qualifications et de son savoir, comme un modèle de référence, d’«imitation» ou d’«émulation» — terme de plus en plus utilisé par les auteurs d’expression anglaise — par tout fidèle s̲h̲īʿite imāmite (à l’exclusion des mud̲j̲tahids) sur tous les points de pratique et de loi religieuses. Comme dans le cas d’autres institu…

, non-Ḳurʾānic term which is used to mean on the one hand the duty of every Muslim to “promote good and forbid evil” and, on the other, the function of the person who is effectively entrusted in a town with the application of this rule in the supervision of moral behaviour and more particularly of the markets; this person entrusted with the ḥisba was called the muḥtasib . There seems to exist ¶ no text which states explicitly either the reason for the choice of this term or how the meanings mentioned above have arisen from the idea of “calculation” or “sufficiency” which is expressed by the root. i.—G…

, basic meanings: 1. Command, 2. (preparation in writing of a command) Edict, Document. Ancient Persian framānā ( fra = “fore”, Greek πρό), modern Persian farmān through dropping the ending ā and insertion of a vowel owing to the initial double consonant (still fra- in Pahlavi). In the derived verb farmūdan the ā of the stem became ū (after the third century: far-mūdan , analogous to āz-mūdan “to try”, pay-mūdan “to measure”, numūdan “to show”, etc.). In Firdawsī farmān is found with the following meanings: command, authority, will, wish, permission; and farmūdan accordingly: to comma…

( r. 1848-96), fourth ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty [ q.v.] of Persia. Born on 6 Ṣafar 1247/17 July 1831 in the village of Kuhnamīr near Tabrīz to the then Prince Muḥammad Mīrzā (later Muḥammad S̲h̲āh. r. 1834-48) and Malik D̲j̲ahān (later Mahd-i ʿUlyā: Queen Mother, d. 1873), daughter of a powerful Ḳād̲j̲ār chief, Nāṣir al-Dīn epitomised the eventual union of the contesting Ḳuwānlū and Davalū clans of the Ḳād̲j̲ār tribe. The young Crown Prince’s right of succession to the throne was not fully secured bef…

, the third ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty [ q.v.], was born on 5 January 1808. He succeeded to the throne in 1834 on the death of his grandfather Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh [ q.v.]. He was the eldest ¶ son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā [ q.v.]. His mother was the daughter of Muḥammad K̲h̲ān Beglarbegi Ḳād̲j̲ār Develu. He had two full brothers, Ḳahramān Mīrzā and Bahman Mīrzā and twenty-three half-brothers. He died on 6 S̲h̲awwāl 1264/4 September 1848 and was buried at Ḳum. His chief wife, the mother of Nāṣir al-Dīn S̲h̲āh [ q.v.], was Malik D̲j̲ahān K̲h̲ānum, whose father was Muḥammad Ḳāsim K̲h̲ān Ẓahīr al-Da…

, a Turkish dynasty which ruled in the lands of Central Asia straddling the T’ien-s̲h̲an Mountains, scil . in both Western Turkestan (Transoxania or Mā warāʾ al-Nahr) and in Eastern Turkestan (Kās̲h̲g̲h̲aria or Sin-kiang), from the 4th/10th to the early 7th/13th centuries. 1. Introductory. The name “Ilek-K̲h̲āns” or “Ilig-K̲h̲āns” stems from 19th century European numismatists. The element Ilek/Ilig (known in Hunnish, Magyar and Uyg̲h̲ur Turkish onomastic) is commonly found on the dynasty’s coins, but is by no means general. The complete phrase Ilek-K̲h̲ān/Ilig-K̲h̲ān …

1. In Arabic. Ḳaṣīda collective ḳaṣīd is the name given in Arabic to some poems of a certain length. It is derived from the root ḳaṣada , “to aim at”, for the primitive ḳaṣīda was intended to eulogize the tribe of the poet and denigrate the opposing tribes. Later it was concerned with the eulogy of a personality or a family from whom the poet was soliciting help or subsidies. Although the funerary elegy ( mart̲h̲iya or rit̲h̲āʾ ) does not seem to have been included originally under the same designation, the form of the ḳaṣīda may nevertheless be classified in this poetic genre. On the oth…

, s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ murtaḍā , despite his being rather unknown in the West, is considered to have been a S̲h̲īʿī mud̲j̲tahid whose widely-recognised religious leadership in the S̲h̲īʿī world has not yet been surpassed. He was born into a noted but financially poor clerical family of Dizfūl, in the south of Iran, in 1214/1799; his lineage went back to D̲j̲ābir b. ʿAbd Allāh Anṣārī (d. 78/697), a Companion of the Prophet. After learning the recitation of the Ḳurʾān and related primary subjects, Anṣārī…

, a stitched or bound booklet, or register, more especially an account or letter-book used in administrative offices. The word derives ultimately from the Greek διφθέρα “hide”, and hence prepared hide for writing. It was already used in ancient Greek in the sense of parchment or, more generally, writing materials. In the 5th century B.C. Herodotus (v, 58) remarks that the lonians, like certain Barbarians of his own day, had formerly written on skins, and still applied the term diphthera to papyrus rolls; in the 4th Ctesias ( in Diodorus Siculus ii, 32; cf. A. Christensen, Heltedigtning og …

, en persan «chef d’armée» et, sous sa forme arabisée, isfahsaār, iṣbasalār, titre donné, au moyen âge, aux chefs d’armée et aux officiers généraux de nombreux États du centre et de l’Est du monde islamique. Sur la composante sālār et sa provenance du persan moyen, voir sālār; le composé spāhsālār est attesté, par ailleurs, en pāzand (persan moyen transcrit du pehlevi en écriture avestique), par exemple, dans le S̲h̲kand-gumānik vičar du IXe siècle (Hiibschmann, Armenische Grammatik, 235). I. monde islamique, a l’exception de l’inde. L’ ispahsālār, en tant que chef militaire, se…