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later known as MOṢṬAFĀ PASHA (ca. 1680-1727), Safavid (later Ottoman) wālī or viceroy of Kʿarṭʿli (Georgia), residing at Tiflis.A version of this article is available in printVolume I, Fascicle 8, pp. 874 ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN, later known as MOṢṬAFĀ PASHA (ca. 1091-1139/1680-1727), Safavid (later Ottoman) wālī or viceroy of Kʿarṭʿli (Georgia), residing at Tiflis. Originally a Georgian Orthodox Christian named Prince Iese Bagrationi, ʿAlī-qolī Khan was a son of Prince Levan (Šāh-qolī Khan) of Kʿarṭʿli by his second wife, Ṭʿinaṭʿin Avalishvili. Levan himself served Shah Solṭān Ḥosayn as d…

(1823-1895), Ottoman writer, historian, jurist, and statesman. A version of this article is available in print Volume XIV, Fascicle 6, pp. 639-640 JEVDET PASHA (b. Lofça [Lovech, central Bulgaria], 1237/1823; d. Istanbul, 2 Ḏu’l-Ḥejja 1312/26 May 1895), Ottoman writer, historian, jurist, and statesman. His original name was Ahmed (Aḥmad), but he became known under the name Jevdet, which was given to him by his tutor Süleyman Fehim Efendi (d. 1846) in 1843. After finishing primary school in Lofça (modern Lovech), he ca…

A liberal Ottoman statesman of the 19th century, who served both as provincial governor and grand vizier (b. Istanbul, 18 October 1822; d. Ṭāʾef, 8 May 1884). MEDḤAT PASHA, a liberal Ottoman statesman of the 19th century, who served both as provincial governor and grand vizier (b. Istanbul, 18 October 1822; d. Ṭāʾef, 8 May 1884). Medḥat, whose real name was Ahmed Şefik (Aḥmad Šafiq), was called “father of the liberals.” He displayed tolerance toward other religions on several occasions, as in the case of the Bahais and the Noṣayris. For instance, whi…

Ismāʿīl Pasha (1830–95), khedive of Egypt from 1863 to 1879, aspired to create a modern state on the European model and sought to extend Egyptian autonomy by courting and balancing Istanbul and European powers. The second son of Ibrāhīm Pasha (r. 1848) and a grandson of Muḥammad ʿAlī (r. 1805–48), Ismāʿīl was born in Cairo and died in Istanbul. He completed his education at the École Militaire in Paris (1844–9), created by his grandfather for the Egyptian student mission of 1844–51, to educate Eg…

(QŪŠJŪ), theologian and scientist (d. 879/1474). A version of this article is available in print Volume I, Fascicle 8, pp. 876-877 i. Life and Theological Works His early education was in Samarqand, where he seems to have specialized in mathematics and astronomy under Qāżī-zāda Rūmī and Uluḡ Beg. He then quietly moved to Kermān, where he studied with several ʿolamāʾ and wrote a commentary (later known as al-Šarḥ al-ǰadīd) on the famous theological work of Ḵᵛāǰa Naṣīr-al-dīn Ṭūsī, al-Taǰrīd. Upon his return to Samarqand, he justified his prolonged absence to Uluḡ Beg by sa…

Aḥmad Pasha al-Jazzār was an Ottoman governor known for his ruthlessness and for successfully defending Acre against Napoleon Bonaparte’s siege in 1213/1799. Born in Bosnia in 1135/1722–3 (al-Bayṭār, 1:127; Shihābī, 2:796; Taʾrīkh ḥawādith al-Shām, 15), Aḥmad left his homeland to take up residence in Istanbul. Once there, however, he faced poverty and deprivation (al-Bayṭār, 1:127) and eventually resolved to move to Egypt in 1155/1769, where he entered the service of several Mamlūk leaders and was put in charge of a village in …

(1789-1821), eldest son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah and powerful prince-governor of western provinces of Persia. A version of this article is available in print Volume VII, Fascicle 2, pp. 147-149 DAWLATŠĀH, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ MĪRZĀ (1203-37/1789-1821), eldest son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah (1212-50/1797-1834) and powerful prince-governor of western provinces of Persia. He was born in the resort village of Navā in Māzandarān to Zībā-čehr Ḵānom, a Georgian (Čūš) slave girl of the Tzicara Chwili family owned by Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah, and was senior by seven …

(b. Qučān, Khorasan, date unknown; d. Tabriz, 3 March 1877), celebrated calligrapher and stone carver, as well as poet and author. He lived as a dervish and spent much of his time traveling, with long sojourns in the Ottoman empire and Egypt. SANGLĀḴ, MIRZĀ MOḤAMMAD-ʿALI ḴORĀSĀNI (b. Qučān, Khorasan, date unknown; d. Tabriz, 17 Ṣafar 1294/ 3 March 1877, Figure 1), celebrated calligrapher and stone carver of the 19th century, as well as poet and author. Sanglāḵ’s professional career spanned the reigns of three Qajar monarchs, namely, Fat…

15th-century woodcarver. A version of this article is available in print Volume I, Fascicle 8, pp. 881 ʿALĪ B. AḤMAD TABRĪZĪ, ḤĀJJĪ, woodcarver who made ( ʿamal) the doors of the Yešil Türbe (the mausoleum of Sultan Meḥmed I) in Bursa, probably to be dated to 824/1421. He seems to have been one of a number of Iranian craftsmen brought to Bursa by the Architect ʿIvaż Pasha to build the mosque, madrasa, and tomb complex of Meḥmed I. It has been speculated that he may have carved the other wooden doors and shutters in the c…

Būzjānī was a disciple of Khwājah ʿAzīz Allāh Jāmī (d. 902/1497), a descendant of Aḥmad Jām and a master of the Naqshbandī Sufi order, who was connected via two intermediaries in the initiatic line ( silsila) to the founder, Bahāʾ al-Dīn Naqshband (d. 791/1389) (Būzjānī, 124).As well as being engaged in the doctrine and practice of Sufism under his master, ʿAzīz Allāh Jāmī, Būzjānī also studied fiqh, tafsīr and literary sciences under the latter, who encouraged all beginners and aspirants to study the works of Muḥammad al-Ghazālī and Ibn al-ʿArabī’s al- Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya.His Rawḍat al…

b. ʿOṯmān Ūšī or Ūsī (d. 1173), oṣūlī jurist ( faqīh), traditionist, and author. A version of this article is available in print Volume IX, Fascicle 3, pp. 256-57 FARḠĀNĪ, EMĀM-AL-ḤARAMAYN SERĀJ-Al-DĪN ABU’L-MOḤAMMAD ʿALĪ,b. ʿOṯmān Ūšī or Ūsī, oṣūlī jurist ( faqīh), traditionist, and author. All that is known about him is that he was Hanafite by persuasion and followed the teachings of Mātorīdī. The date of his death is given as 569/1173 (Kaḥḥāla, Moʾallefīn, VII, p. 148; Kašf al-ẓonūn II, p. 1200; Brockelmann, GAL I, p. 429) and 575/1179 (Esmāʿīl Pasha, V, p. 700; Kašf al-ẓonūn II, p. 135…

(d. 1746 A.D.), Ottoman scholar, son of Shaikh Laʿlī Meḥmed, the grandson of Sarı ʿAbdallāh, a commentator on the Maṯnavī. A version of this article is available in print Volume I, Fascicle 1, pp. 104 ʿABD-AL -BĀQĪ LAʿLĪZĀDA (d. 1746 A.D.), Ottoman scholar, son of Shaikh Laʿlī Meḥmed, the grandson of Sarı ʿAbdallāh, a commentator on the Maṯnavī. After receiving a good education he became the teacher of the grand vizier ʿAlī Pasha; and after the latter’s defeat in the Morea, he was banished to the island of Lemnos. He was eventually pardoned and appointed successively kadi of Istanbul, then kad…

HĀFEẒ-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD, scholar of religion and author, renowned for his ability to write with speed and in an attractive style. A version of this article is available in print Volume XI, Fascicle 5, pp. 509-510 ḤĀFEẒ-e ʿAJAM, HĀFEẒ-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad b. ʿĀdel Çelebi, scholar of religion and author (d. 957/1550). He was born at an unknown date at Bardaʿa in the Caucasus to a father whose name is varyingly given as Aḥmad and ʿĀdel. After completing the major part of his education in his hometown, he came to Tabriz for further …

Ḥusayn Pāshā Dey of Algiers (1181–1253/1768–1838), whose given name was al-Ḥasan b. al-Ḥasan, was the last to hold the title dey, or regent, of Algiers, a position he held from 1818 until the French conquest of the city in 1830. He was born in 1181/1768 in Sandıklı, a village near Denizli in western Anatolia. His father was originally from Çanakkale (Çanā Qalī). Theirs was a prominent Muslim family, providing Ḥusayn with social connections and a solid grounding in Islam. At the age of twenty-four, he left his village for Istanbul to s…

Firḍa (Ar., also furḍa; Ott. Turk. ferde) is a term used for several different personal taxes levied by the government in Ottoman Egypt and Syria. During the second half of the twelfth/eighteenth century, the firḍa is attested as one of many duties imposed on the peasantry by soldiers of the provincial governors (Shaw, Furḍa). In 1206/1791–2, Murād Bey and Ibrāhīm Bey, the joint de-facto rulers of Egypt between 1189/1775 and 1213/1798, used the term firḍat al-taḥrīr for a new levy to replace all the previous occasional duties. The firḍat al-taḥrīr belonged to the so-called mukhrījāt reve…

(1835-93), MIRZĀ, Iranian poet, grammarian, and translator, who spent much of his life in exile in Ottoman Turkey; noted for his Persian grammar, Dastur-e Soḵan, regarded as the first systematic grammar of the Persian language and a model for many later works. A version of this article is available in print Volume XI, Fascicle 4, pp. 426-427 ḤABIB EṢFAHĀNI, MIRZĀ, Iranian poet, grammarian and translator, who spent much of his life in exile in Ottoman Turkey (1835-93; Figure 1). Born in Ben, in the Baḵ-tiāri region of Iran, in 1251/1835, he began his st…

B. ḤOSĀM-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ, MAWLĀNĀ (d. 1520), scholar, hisꏂtorian, poet, and statesman under the Ottoman Sultan Salīm I (r. 1512-20). A version of this article is available in print Volume IV, Fascicle 1, pp. 75-76 BEDLĪSĪ, MAWLĀNĀ ḤAKĪM-AL-DĪN EDRĪS B. ḤOSĀM-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ (d. 926/1520), scholar, historian, poet, and statesman under the Ottoman Sultan Salīm I (916-26/1512-20). Edrīs was born and educated in Bedlīs, where his father, probably a Kurd, was a respected scholar and Sufi, a disciple of ʿAmmār b. Yāser. Edrīs became dīvān secretary and eventually chancellor ( mowaqqeʿ, nešānjī) t…

previous section TAẔAKKUR AL-INQILĀB Memoir of the Revolution ¶ [1] Praise be to God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! Praise be to God, from whom I seek assistance for the truth of what is told and aid in recounting t…

This list does not include the recognised abbreviations for well-known periodicals nor the titles of Persian historical and biographical works (except in a few special cases). ¶ a.h.s. Anno Hegirae Solaris. I have prefixed these l…

ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Ḥasan al-Jabartī (1166–1240/1753–1825) was a Cairene scholar best known for his account of the French occupation of Egypt from 1213/1798 to 1216/1801 and for the hybrid chronicle-biographical compendium, ʿ Ajāʾib al-āthār fī l-tarājim wa-l-akhbār (“The marvelous chronicles. Biographies and events”), that he compiled later in life. The Jabartī family descended from Muslim scholars from the part of the Horn of Africa known as Jabart, corresponding roughly to present-day eastern Ethiopia, northwestern Somalia, and Djibouti. In h…

Khiṭaṭ (sing. khiṭṭa) is the Arabic word for plotted urban quarters, especially in the early Islamic period. By the late fourth/tenth century, the term began to designate also books on cities that record their monuments, quarters, and streets, a genre that we would today call topographical urban history. In this framework, buildings appear mostly as landmarks examined in their urban contexts, with emphasis on their patrons, costs, the circumstances under which they were built, and their historical significance. Khiṭaṭ books were an offshoot of the more literal kutub al-mudun (books…

(Ar. Janza), the Islamic name of a town in the early medieval Islamic province of Arrān (the classical Caucasian Albania, Armenian Alvankʿ). A version of this article is available in print Volume X, Fascicle 3, pp. 282-283 GANJA (Ar. Janza), the Islamic name of a town in the early medieval Islamic province of Arrān (the classical Caucasian Albania, Armenian Alvankʿ; see ARRĀN). In imperial Russian times, the town was called Elisavetpol after 1813; in Soviet times, when it came within the Azerbaijan SSR, it was first called Gandzha …

See also Macedonia in 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021. 1 Muslim Populations The most recent official census (2002) recorded 660,492 Muslims (mainly Sunnis), or around 31% of the total population (2,022,547). Of these, 509,083 (or 77%) were ethnic Albanians, 77,959 (12%) Turks, 53,879 Roma, and 17,018 Bosniaks.1 Albanians, who speak a different language from Macedonian, which is a Slavic language, started to become Muslims with the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans in the fourteenth century. Turks a…

(1743-1812), Shiʿi scholar and jurist, broadly influential in both Iraq and Persia. His cognomen, meaning “remover of the veil,” alludes to one of his best known works. A version of this article is available in print Volume XV, Fascicle 6, pp. 648-649 KĀŠEF-AL-ḠEṬĀʾ, JAʿFAR B. ḴEŻR NAJAFI (b. Najaf, 1156/1743; d. Najaf, 1227/1812), Shiʿi scholar and jurist, broadly influential in both Iraq and Persia. His cognomen, meaning “remover of the veil,” alludes to one of his best known works, Kašf al-ḡeṭāʾ ʿan mobhamāt al-šariʿat al-ḡorrāʾ (“Removing the veil from the obscurities of th…

(Irānzamin, Madrasa-ye Baynalmelali-e Tehrān), a combined Iranian and American international school founded in 1967. A version of this article is available in print Volume XIII, Fascicle 5, pp. 541-543 IRANZAMIN, TEHRAN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL (Irānzamin, Madrasa-ye Baynalmelali-e Tehrān), a combined Iranian and American international school founded in 1967. Iranzamin developed out of the American Community School (Madrasa-ye Āmrikāʾi) in Tehran. Community School’s roots go back to Alborz College (q.v.) and an American Presbyt…

In Volume 1-1: Qurʾānic Literature, History, and Biography | Section 2, History, Biography, etc. previous chapter: 12.1 General (See also § 663 nos. (5) and (6)) § 664. In consequence of the disturbed state of K̲h̲urāsān Ḥasan Niẓāmī1 le…

In Volume 1-1: Qurʾānic Literature, History, and Biography | Section 2, History, Biography, etc. previous chapter: 3.9 The Āq-Quyūnlū § 371. For the Ṣafwat al-ṣafā, an account of the life, sayings and miracles of S̲h̲aik̲h̲ …

From the eleventh/seventeenth through the early thirteenth/nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire made heavy use of mamlūks, or elite slaves converted to Islam and trained for military and administrative service, from the Caucasus. In doing so, the Ottomans were not so much reviving the institutions of the Mamlūk sultanate as exploiting an alternative pool of military and administrative manpower to the devşirme (devşīrme), the distinctive Ottoman system of enslaving boys from the empire’s rural Balkan and Anatolian Christian populations, converting them t…

See also Macedonia in 2008 | 2009 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021. 1 Muslim Populations The most recent official census (2002) recorded 660,492 Muslims (mainly Sunnis), or around 31% of the total population (2,022,547). Of these, 509,083 (or 77%) were ethnic Albanians, 77,959 (12%) Turks, 53,879 Roma, and 17,018 Bosniaks.1 Albanians, who speak a different language from Macedonian, which is a Slavic language, started to become Muslims with the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans in the fourteenth century. Turks a…

See also Macedonia in 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2012 | 2013 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021. 1 Muslim Populations The most recent official census (2002) recorded 660,492 Muslims (mainly Sunnis), or around 31% of the total population (2,022,547). Of these, 509,083 (or 77%) were ethnic Albanians, 77,959 (12%) Turks, 53,879 Roma, and 17,018 Bosniaks.1 Albanians, who speak a different language from Macedonian, which is a Slavic language, started to become Muslims with the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans in the fourteenth century. Turks a…

See also Macedonia in 2008 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021. 1 Muslim Populations The most recent official census (2002) recorded 660,492 Muslims (mainly Sunnis), or around 31% of the total population (2,022,547). Of these, 509,083 (or 77%) were ethnic Albanians, 77,959 (12%) Turks, 53,879 Roma, and 17,018 Bosniaks.1 Albanians, who speak a different language from Macedonian, which is a Slavic language, started to become Muslims with the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans in the fourteenth century. Turks a…

In Volume 1-1: Qurʾānic Literature, History, and Biography | Section 2, History, Biography, etc. previous chapter: 2.1 Qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ § 212. M. Ibn Isḥāq al-Muṭṭalibī lived for a time at al-Madīnah, probably his birthplac…

a reference work of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with “the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples.” A version of this article is available in print Volume VIII, Fascicle 4, pp. 432-435 ENCYCLOPAEDIAOF ISLAM, a reference work of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with “the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples.” Published under the auspices of E. J. Brill, it exists in two editions. The first editi…

Eugène Flandin was the son of Jean-Baptiste Flandin, an intendant in Napoléon’s armies. Little is known about his mother Marie-Agnès Durand. Eugène’s early years were linked with his father’s tumultuous career. He was only two years old when his family returned from Naples, where his father had been assigned since 1807, serving with Murat. A version of this article is available in print Volume X, Fascicle 1, pp. 35-39 FLANDIN AND COSTE, a French painter and an architect renowned for their outstanding illustrated account of their travels in Persia during 1839-41. Flandin, Eugène Napolé…

Harawī, Khwājah ʿAbd Allāh Anṣārī (396–481/1006–1089) was a Sufi master, gnostic, preacher, jurist, commentator of the Qurʾān and traditionist from Khurāsān. He is variously referred to as pīr-i Harāt,pīr-i AnṣārīorShaykh al-Islām, and all the works that are ascribed to him seem to have been orally transmitted to his students and authenticated by him with a written licence ( ijāza), rather than written by him (Beaurecueil, 145; Utas, 83).  BIOGRAPHY According to Harawī himself, he was born on 2 Shaʿbān 396/4 May 1006 in the Kuhandizh (Quhandiz) neighbourhood o…

In volume S2 | book 3, The Decline of Islamic Literature | Section 2, From the Conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selīm I in 1517 to the Napoleonic Expedition to Egypt in 1798 previous chapter | German edition 1 Poetry 1a. In honour of Sulṭān al-Diyār al-Fārisiyya, Lord of Ḥuwayza and Zakiyya, Ayman b. ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn b. al-Malik al-Muḥsin ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd al-Muḥsin, Ḥasan b. ʿAlī al-Sanbāwī al-Mālikī al-Ḥimyarī composed: A qaṣīda, on which his son ʿAlī wrote a commentary in 963/1556 entitled Bughyat al-mufīd wa-bulghat al-mustafīd fī sharḥ al-Qaṣīd, Paris 3240, Cairo2 III, 36. 3. Shihāb al-…

al-Ḥijāz , a toponym for the territory lying parallel to the Red Sea coast on the western side of the Arabian peninsula. From the root ḥ-j-z meaning ‘to prevent’, the word Ḥijāz means a barrier that, according to Ibn Manẓūr, demarcates the geographical area bordered to the north by the Ghawr (the Jordan Rift Valley) and al-Shām and reaching southwards into the greater Arabian desert and steppe (al-Bādiya); it may also refer to the land between the eastern uplands of Najd and the Sarāh (the Sarawāt mountain range)…

In volume S1 | Introduction previous chapter | German edition 1. In a first round, sources listed here are only those which should be taken into account for the entire field, especially as regards volume I, while monographs will receive individual mention where appropriate. 1. Biographical works Irsh. The Irshád al-Aríb ilá maʿrifat al-Adíb or Dictionary of learned Men by Yáqút, ed. by D.S. Margoliouth, vol. I–VII, Leiden 1907–26 (E.J.W. Gibb Memorial vol. VI); second edition vol. I, 1923. 2. Bibliographies Victor Chauvin, Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes ou relatifs aux Arab…

See also Macedonia in 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2013 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021. 1 Muslim Populations The most recent official census (2002) recorded 660,492 Muslims (mainly Sunnis), or around 31% of the total population (2,022,547). Of these, 509,083 (or 77%) were ethnic Albanians, 77,959 (12%) Turks, 53,879 Roma, and 17,018 Bosniaks.1 Albanians, who speak a different language from Macedonian, which is a Slavic language, started converting to Islam with the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans in the fourteenth century. Turks…

See also Macedonia in 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021. 1 Muslim Populations The most recent official census (2002) recorded 660,492 Muslims (mainly Sunnis), or around 31% of the total population (2,022,547). Of these, 509,083 (or 77%) were ethnic Albanians, 77,959 (12%) Turks, 53,879 Roma, and 17,018 Bosniaks.1 Albanians, who speak a different language from Macedonian, which is a Slavic language, started converting to Islam with the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans in the fourteenth century. Turks…

In Volume 1-1: Qurʾānic Literature, History, and Biography | Section 2, History, Biography, etc. previous chapter: 6 History of Afg̲h̲ānistān § 578. It appears from the Āyā Ṣūfīyah ms. of al-Awāmir al-ʿalānīyah that the author was …

The Ottomans governed Jerusalem for slightly more than four hundred years, from the Ottoman conquest in 922/ 1516 to the end of Ottoman rule in 1336/1917. Late in 922/1516, Sultan Selim I (Selīm I, r. 918–26/1512–20) took over the city peacefully after defeating the army of the Mamlūk sultanate that had ruled Jerusalem from its seat in Cairo for more than two hundred fifty years (Somel, xxvii; Çelebi, Ottoman traveler, 317). Selim’s son and successor, Süleyman (Süleymān, r. 926–74/1520–66) undertook several major projects that were to change the face of the city …

(tablet), a term used distinctively in the Bahai writings as part of the title of individual compositions of Bahāʾ-Allāh addressed to individuals or groups of individuals. LAWḤ "tablet," a term used distinctively in the Bahai writings as part of the title of individual compositions of Bahāʾ-Allāh (q.v.) addressed to individuals or groups of individuals. In popular, but probably inaccurate, usage, it is also used to refer to similar writings of cAbd-al-Bahāʾ (q.v.) and sometimes Shoghi Effendi. The Bāb (q.v.) did not specifically designate any of his works as lawḥ, though he occasio…

In Jordan’s time, Iran was beset by Russian and British imperial aspirations, and many Iranians sought to buttress their country’s independence by drawing a third power into the balance. These Iranians saw the US as well-suited for this role because it then had no obvious imperial designs in the region. A version of this article is available in print Volume XV, Fascicle 1, pp. 14-21 JORDAN, SAMUEL MARTIN (known in Iran as Dr. Jordan; b. near Stewartstown, Pennsylvania, 6 January 1871; d. Los Angeles, CA, 21 June 1952; Figure 1), teacher, Presbyterian minister…

The Islamic world developed distinct traditions for measuring and recording durations, and these traditions served to construct time as thoroughly Islamic. Far from being a simple act of measurement applied to some “natural,” pre-existing entity, timekeeping is one of the main ways by which social time is produced and maintained. Keeping time is always entangled with considerations of knowledge (what is time? what is the “true time?”) and power (who sanctions true time? who has access to true time?). Timekeeping appears to be a p…

In volume S2 | book 3, The Decline of Islamic Literature | Section 1, From Mongol Rule Until the Conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selīm I in the Year 1517 previous chapter | German edition Philology 1a. Ḥasan Pāshā b. ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn b. al-Aswad al-Niksārī, ca. 800/1397. ShN I, 95 (Rescher 17), followed by Taʿl. san. 48. 1. al-Iftitāḥ fī sharḥ al-Miṣbāḥ, see I, 514.—2. Sharḥ Marāḥ al-arwāḥ, see p. 14. 1b. Bahāʾ Alimghā al-Qarawī, before 812/1409. Al-Muʿashsharāt al-siḥriyya fi ’l-abyāt al-fikriyya, Arabic dictionary in Persian verse with an Arabic introduction, Paris 4296. 1c. Ḥājjī Bābā b. Ibr…

In volume S2 | book 3, The Decline of Islamic Literature | Section 3, From the Napoleonic Expedition to Egypt Until the British Occupation previous chapter | German edition While Egypt and Syria opened their gates—even if not always voluntarily—to the influx of European ideas as early as the first half of the nineteenth century, the western part of the Arabic-speaking world remained obstinately closed to such influence. |⁸⁷² To them, Europe was the enemy that had threatened its independence for many decades; in the centre it had crushed it in a sudden attack, wh…

relations with Persia and Afghanistan. A version of this article is available in print Volume VIII, Fascicle 3, pp. 247-267 EGYPT: relations with Persia and Afghanistan.i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid periodii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic periodiii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periodsiv. Relations in the Sasanian periodv. Political and commerical relations in the Islamic period. See FATIMIDS, AYYUBIDS, IL-KHANIDSvi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic periodvii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern periodv…

1. Terminologie und GrundlagenSklaven unterliegen der Gewalt anderer Menschen oder Institutionen. S. ist die Institution der Herrschaft, die Arbeitskraft, Dienstleistung und Körper von Versklavten für Sklavenhalter und -eigentümer verfügbar macht und hält. Sklavenhandel (= Sh.) bezeichnet den Transport und Handel von Sklaven (Menschenhandel) sowie die Kapitalbildung durch Tausch, Kauf und Verkauf von Menschen (Sklavenverschleppung; Sklavenmarkt). Das engl. Wort slaving steht als Oberbegriff für Menschenjagd, Verschleppung, Transport, Kapitalisierung, K…

Ayyūbid CairoAfter Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Ayyūbī (Saladin) was appointed as vizier to the caliph al-ʿĀḍid (r. 555–567/1160–1171) on 25 Jumādā II 564/26 March 1169 (al-Maqrīzī, Ittiʿāẓ, 3/308), the crushing of a palace plot and of a rebellion by 50,000 caliphal troops led to the burning of the Manṣūriyya quarter south of the city. As the caliph al-ʿĀḍid’s support collapsed, he was imprisoned in his quarters, and on the second Friday of Muḥarram 567/September 1171, his name was removed from the sermon, and prayers were said ins…

This famous fraternal order, bound by rituals and secret oaths, was introduced to Persia and adopted by Persian notables in the 19th century. It developed in the early 20th century and burgeoned in the period from 1950-78. Its practice still continues among some middle- and upper-class Persians in exile at the turn of the 21st century. The topic will be treated in five entries. A version of this article is available in print Volume X, Fascicle 2, pp. 205-221 FREEMASONRY This famous fraternal order, bound by rituals and secret oaths, was introduced to Persia and adopted by P…

previous chapter | German edition | next chapter | contents Mitri Raheb Map 5 The Ottoman Empire from 1881 until 1922. © PETER PALM, BERLIN. A Preliminary Remark on the Term “Middle East”1 The term “Middle East” was coined in the 19th Century and thus represents an Euro-centric view of the world. Only by looking at the region from Europe does one realize that it is east/southeast. To distinguish it from the Far East, Europeans first called it the Near East and later the Middle East. The region’s name, consequently, is closely r…

In Volume 1-2: Biography, Additions, and Corrections | Section 2, History, Biography, etc. previous chapter: 13.1.2 Poets (2) [The series of works enumerated in the preceding subsection includes not only the tad̲h̲kirahs primarily …

In volume S2 | book 3, The Decline of Islamic Literature | Section 3, From the Napoleonic Expedition to Egypt Until the British Occupation previous chapter | German edition |⁷¹⁸ As a result of European influence, the stagnation of intellectual life which had dominated the Muslim world over the last couple of centuries gradually diminished. But even though the reforms of Muḥammad ʿAlī and his successors inundated the country with countless achievements of European civilization and the machine age, these matters initially had …

In Volume 1-2: Biography, Additions, and Corrections | Section 2, History, Biography, etc. ¶ A list of 51 sources of information concerning Persian poets (all tad̲h̲kirahs except one or two histories containing biographical s…

In Volume 1-1: Qurʾānic Literature, History, and Biography | Section 1, Qurʾānic Literature previous chapter: 8 Miscellaneous Works ¶ § 101. Abū Jaʿfar M. b. Jarīr al-Ṭabarī (b. at Āmul ah 224/838–9, d. at Bag̲h̲dād ah 310/923) has alr…

Damascus, the capital city of the Syrian Arab Republic and the centre of a province by the same name in the south-west of Syria. Introduction EtymologyThere are numerous stories, many of a mythical character, about the founding and naming of Damascus. As regards the historical record, in the Tell el-Amarna tablets of Egypt, which date back to 14th century BCE, the city is named Ta-ms-qu and in the clay tablets of Ebla (Syria, Idlib province, ca. 2500 BCE) and in Assyrian texts (9th to 8th century BC) it is referred to a…

In Volume 2: Mathematics; Weights, and Measures; Astronomy, and Astrology; Geography; Medicine; Encyclopaedias, and Miscellanies; Arts and Crafts, Science, Occult Arts previous chapter: 5.1 Medicine (1) § 466. M. Aṣg̲h̲ar b. Ḥājj…

In Volume 4: Law; Tradition; Religion; Sufism; Bahāʾism; Prayers; Hinduism; Translations from Sanskrit, Hindi, and other Indian Languages, Ethics; Philosophy; Logic ¶ § 1. Aḥmad b. M. al-Qudūrī al-Bag̲h̲dādī died in 428/1037 (See Enc…

the southern part of Mesopotamia, known in the early Islamic period as del-e Irānšahr (lit. “the heart of the kingdom of Iran”), served as the central province of the Sasanian empire as well as that of the ʿAbbasid caliphate.A version of this article is available in printVolume XIII, Fascicle 5, pp. 543-550 IRAQ AND ITS RELATIONS WITH IRANRelations between Iran and Mesopotamia, the core region of present-day Iraq, can be traced back to the early waves of the westward migration of Iranian tribes in the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. when the Irani…

In Volume 2: Mathematics; Weights, and Measures; Astronomy, and Astrology; Geography; Medicine; Encyclopaedias, and Miscellanies; Arts and Crafts, Science, Occult Arts previous chapter: 4 Geography, Etc. Chester Beatty Pers. C…

a province in western Iran; also the name of its principal city and capital.A version of this article is available in printVolume XVI, Fascicle 3, pp. 315KERMANSHAH i. Geography Physical geography. Kermanshah Province, situated in western Iran, spreads over an area of 25,000 km2 (9,560 square miles, roughly the size of Vermont), or 1.5 percent of the total area of the country (Figure 1). It lies between lat 45.5° and 48° E, long 33.7° and 35.3° N (parallels that cut across the Mediterranean Sea and southern United States).Most of the surface of the province lies within the Zagros …

In volume S3ii | Indices Aʿazz b. al-Muntahā S I 286,13 Abān al-Lāḥiqī S I 107, 238 b. ʿAbbād al-Nafzī M. b. Ibr. b. a. Bakr G II 265, S II 358 b. a. ʿAbbād al-Yamanī S II 914 -ʿAbbādī M. b. A. b. M. al-Harawī G I 386, S I 669 -ʿAbbādī a. Bakr b. ʿA. b. M. G II 189, S II 250 b. al-Abbār A. b. M. S II 707 b. al-Abbār M. b. ʿAl. b. a. Bakr G I 340, S I 580 a. ’l-ʿAbbās S I 322 a. ’l-ʿAbbās b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. Rāshid al-Hilālī al-Sijilmāsī S II 98, y a. ’l-ʿAbbās A. al-Bahlūl S III 190 -ʿAbbās b. A. al-Ṣanʿānī S I 313 -ʿAbbās b. al-Aḥnaf G I 74, S I 114 -ʿAbbās b. ʿA. al-Malik al-Afḍal G II 184, S II 236 -ʿAbbās b. ʿA. b. Nūraddīn al-…

Celebrated Persian lyric poet (ca. 715-792/1315-1390).A version of this article is available in printVolume XI, Fascicle 5, pp. 461-507 HAFEZ (Ḥāfeẓ), ŠAMS-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD of Shiraz (ca. 715-792/1315-1390), celebrated Persian lyric poet.HAFEZ i. An OverviewHafez is the most popular of Persian poets. If a book of poetry is to be found in a Persian home, it is likely to be the Divān (collected poems) of Hafez. Many of his lines have become proverbial sayings, and there are few who cannot recite some of his lyrics, partially or totally, by heart. His Divān is widely used in bibliomancy ( fāl; …

In volume S3i | book 4, Modern Arabic Literature previous chapter Introduction Perhaps the most challenging feature of GAL is Brockelmann’s use of abbreviations, which are often hard to understand. This was noted previously by Richard S. Cooper in his “How to use GAL”, in MELA Notes 3/October 1974, p. 19, and also by J.J. Witkam in his “Brockelmann’s Geschichte revisited”, in vol. 1,p. XV of the 1996 reprint of GAL’s second edition. As problems of understanding may unduly prevent the reader from consulting valuable sources, it was decided to draw up a l…

In volume S2 | book 3, The Decline of Islamic Literature | Section 2, From the Conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selīm I in 1517 to the Napoleonic Expedition to Egypt in 1798 previous chapter | German edition Ad p. 303 Ad p. 304 1 Poetry and Rhymed Prose 1. ʿĀʾisha bint Yūsuf b. Aḥmad b. Nāṣir b. Khalīfa al-Bāʿūniyya al-Ṣāliḥiyya Umm ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, a sister of Muḥammad b. Yūsuf (p. 53, 18), was born in Damascus. From 919/1513 1 onward she lived in Cairo. In 922/1516 she returned to Damascus, then went to Aleppo and, having returned to Damascus once more, died in the same year. RAAD XII, 648 ff. (following…

|¹In volume S3i | book 4, Modern Arabic Literature previous chapter | German edition When Britain occupied Egypt, it initially believed that it was simply securing its authority in India by keeping open the Suez canal. However, one of the positive side-effects of the occupation was that it saved Egypt from political and economic collapse. Indeed, even the greatest champion of the freedom of nations will have to admit that it was only thanks to the British administration that the majority of the Egyptian popul…

This entry is concerned with the historiography of the Iranian and Persephone world from the pre-Islamic period through the 20th century in Persian and other Iranian languages. The periods and their subdivisions of this historiography are covered in 14 articles. A version of this article is available in print Volume XII, Fascicle 3, pp. 323-411 HISTORIOGRAPHY. This entry is concerned with the historiography of the Iranian and Persephone world from the pre-Islamic period through the 20th century in Persian and other Iranian languages. Broadly speakin…

[English edition] 1. جغرافيا 1.1 الخصائص الجيولوجيّة تعتبر سلسلتا جبال البورز وجبال زاغروس اللتّان تمتدّان تباعا من الغرب إلى الشّرق ومن الشّمال الغربيّ إلى الجنوب الشّرقيّ أهمّ الوحدات الطّبوغرافيّة بإيران. فعلى نطاق واسع، تمثّل جبال البورز امتدادا للبنى الآلبيّة الأوروبيّة، بينما تعتبر جبال زاغروس تواصلا للآلب الديناريّة عبر قبرص (فيشير، 1956). وقد تأثّرت البنية الجبليّة لحاشية البلاد بشدّة الحركات البنائيّة التّي لم تسبّب فقط التواءً كبيرًا للطبقات أدّى إلى ظهور جبال مرتفعة، بل أدّت أيضاً إلى انقلاب…

Jaʿfar ʿAlī Khān Jāghūrī, 8 Jahāngīr Pādshāh Gūrgānī, Mughal emperor, 452, 461 ¶ Jalwānī, son of Chār, son of Shayrānī, son of Sharkhbūn, son of Sarban, 356 tribes descended from, 421, 422 Jamāl Pāshā, Turkish military instructor, 5…

(Badr Khan; d. 1867), last ruler of the principality of Cizre-Botan, by extension, name of a Kurdish clan that has played important political, social, and cultural roles since the mid-19th century. A version of this article is available in print Volume IV, Fascicle 1, pp. 74 BEDIR KHAN (Badr Khan; d. 1867), last ruler of the principality of Cizre-Botan and by extension also the name of a well-known Kurdish clan that has played important political, social, and cultural roles in Kurdish history since the mid-13th/19th century. The principality…

Kayserili Halil (Qayṣerili Khalīl) Paşa (c.977–1038/c.1570–1629), an Ottoman grand vizier and grand admiral, was born in the village of Zeytun (now Süleymanli), in the province of Kahramanmaraş. He was recruited into the devşirme ( devşīrme, the “collection” of boys from among Balkan and Anatolian Christian subjects) and received his education at the Enderun Mektebi (Enderūn Mektebi, Palace School). In 1014–5/1606, he was appointed çakırcıbaşı (chief falconer), a court position for prospective sancakbeyis ( sancaqbeği, administrator of a sub-district). On 4 Ramazan (…

Ismāʿīl Bey al-Kabīr (the Elder, d. 1205/1791) was one of the most prominent amīrs of the Qazdūghlī faction that dominated the Ottoman province of Egypt during the second half of the eighteenth century. He was among the cadre of young mamlūks (military slaves) of Georgian descent introduced into Egypt by the Qazdūghlī leader Ibrāhīm Katkhudā ( shaykh al-balad 1161–8/1748–54). Following the death of his master in 1168/1754, his kūshdāsh (fellow slave under the same master), the famous ʿAlī Bey Baluṭ Qapan, in 1174/1760 made him a sancak bey (governor of a subprovince) and arranged …

(Kurdish Bādīnān), name of a Kurdish region, river, dialect group, and amirate. A version of this article is available in print Volume III, Fascicle 5, pp. 485 BAHDĪNĀN (Kurdish Bādīnān), name of a Kurdish region, river, dialect group, and amirate. The region comprises roughly the largely mountainous northern qażās of Mowṣel lewā of Iraq (according to the pre-1973 administrative division) including ʿAmādīya, ʿAqra, Dahōk, Zāḵū, Zībār (divided between Arbīl and Mowṣel lewās in 1944), and Šayḵān. The first four qażās were regrouped into a new administrative division, Dahōk moḥāfaẓa, …

In Volume 6: Indices back to overview A Aʿazz al-Dīn Muḥammad 1 644 Abā ’l-Ḥasan b. M. Kāẓim 4 906 Ābādaʾī, M. Jaʿfar b. M. Ṣafī 4 147 (1) (b) Abarqūhī, ʿAbd al-Salām b. ʿAlī al- 1 223 (2) 2nd Abarqūhī, Ismāʿīl b. Niẓām al-Mulk 2 819 Abarqūhī, K̲h…

or FAHĪM SOLAYMĀN (b. Istanbul, 1789; d. 1846), a Persian teacher and poet of Turkish origin. A version of this article is available in print Volume IX, Fascicle 5, pp. 474-475 FEHİM SÜLEYMAN (FAHĪM SOLAYMĀN) EFENDİ, a Persian teacher and poet of Turkish origin (b. Istanbul, 1203/1789; d. 1262/1846). There is no information available concerning his youth and education. He was a servant and student of the well-known contemporary scholar Esmāʿīl Farroḵ Efendi. He matured under his tutelage and, above all, became highly accomplis…

Ottoman scholar, judge, writer, and translator. He was born in Edirne (his birth date is unknown) and is known as Mesnevi-hānzāde (Maṯnawi-ḵᵛānzāda).A version of this article is available in printVolume XV, Fascicle 4, pp. 438 KĀMI AḤMED ÇELEBI (Kāmi Aḥmad Čelebi; b. Edirne; d. Istanbul, 1579), Ottoman scholar, judge, writer, and translator. He was born in Edirne (his birth date is unknown) and known as Mesnevi-hānzāde (Maṯnawi-ḵvānzāda). He inherited the title of shaikh of the Mevlevi-hāne ( Mawlawi-ḵᵛ āna) of Muradiye in Edirne from his father, but he later gave up this…

Ibrāhīm Bey (c.1148–1228/1735–1813), who experienced an unusually long career in Mamlūk politics in Ottoman Egypt, played a central role in virtually all the major events that engulfed that province during the last three decades of the eighteenth century. Born Abram Shinjikashvili, the son of a Georgian Orthodox priest in the village of Martkofi, Georgia, he was purchased by Muḥammad Bey Abū l-Dhahab (d. 1189/1775) around 1178/1765. Along with Murād Bey, another Georgian mamlūk purchased about the same time, he soon became one of Muḥammad Bey’s favourite and most powerful mamlūks. H…

ŠAMS-AL-DIN AḤMAD, also known as Kamālpāšā-Oḡlu and Ebn-e Kamāl (873-940/1468-1534), prolific Ottoman scholar, author of several works in and on Persian. A version of this article is available in print Volume XV, Fascicle 4, pp. 414-415 KAMĀL PĀŠĀ-ZĀDA, ŠAMS-AL-DIN AḤMAD, also known as Kamālpāšā-Oḡlu and Ebn-e Kamāl (873-940/1468-1534), prolific Ottoman scholar, author of several works in and on Persian. A native of Edirne, he studied under the local mufti , Mollā Loṭfi, and subsequently taught at the madrasas of Edirne, Uskup (Skoplje) and Istanbul; later he acc…

ʿAbduh al-Ḥāmūlī (also Ḥamūlī, b. possibly 1836, 1841, or 1845, d. 12 May 1901) was the most famous vocalist and composer of late nineteenth-century Egypt. Sī ʿAbduh, as he was known, gained iconic stature as the renewer of Arabic music in the khedival era, along with his main competitor in composition, Muḥammad ʿUthmān (d. 1900). Most of the information concerning his life is to be found in the almost hagiographical essay on his art written by Qasṭandī Rizq, from 1936 to 1947; later sources provide little additional information. Ḥāmūlī was born in …

Buşatlı Mustafa Paşa (Muṣṭafā, 1211–76/1797–1860) was an Ottoman statesman of Albanian origin. He was born on 27 Ramazan (Ramaḍān) 1211/26 March 1797, the son of Mehmed Asaf (Meḥmed Āṣāf) Paşa and the nephew of Kara Mahmud Paşa İşkodralı Buşatlı (Qara Maḥmūd, d. 1211/1796). Mustafa Paşa married Ayşe (ʿĀʾisha), the niece of Ali Paşa Tependelenli (ʿAlī, d. 1237/1822). After learning of Ali Paşa’s plot against him, Mustafa Paşa supported the politics of the Sublime Porte in opposition to Ali Paşa’s rebellion. Mustafa Paşa was appointed mutasarrıf ( mutaṣarrıf, chief administrator) o…

Lala Mustafa (Lālā Muṣṭafā) Paşa (d. 988/1580) was a tenth-/sixteenth-century Ottoman vizier and military commander. He was born in the Bosnian village of Soqol (on an unknown date) and admitted to the Sultan’s court thanks to his influential family connections. He rose rapidly through the ranks of the Ottoman hierarchy, but incurred the disfavour of the grand vizier Rustem (Rūstem) Paşa (d. 968/1561) in 962/1555. He was associated with the entourage of Süleyman (Süleymān) I’s (r. 926–74/1520–66) most probable successor Bayezid (Bāyezīd, 931–69/1525–61) and was appointed lala ( lāl…

Abbas Abdollah Garousi: Barāhūyī (Brahui) Abbas Mosallayi-pour: al-Bayḍāwī; ʿAlī b. Maymūn Abbas Saidi: Abū al-Khaṣīb Abbas Zaryab: Abāqā Khān; Abū al-Qāsim al-Balkhī; Abū ʿĪsā al-Warrāq; Abū Saʿīd Gūrakān; Abū Yaʿqūb al-Sijistānī; Ādharbāyjān Abbasali Ahmadi: Darb-i Imām Abd al-Amir Jaberizadeh: Abū Shimr (or Shamir) al-Murjiʾ; al-Basawī; Bajaliyya Abdol-Amir Salim: Abū al-ʿĀliya; Abū al-Dardāʾ; Abū al-Futūḥ al-ʿIjlī; Abū al-Ḥasan al-Jurjānī; Abū al-Walīd al-Bājī; Abū Ḥudhayfa; Abū ʿĪsā al-Iṣfahānī; Abū Umāma al-Bāhilī; Adhān and iqāma; Anas b. Mālik Abdolhamid Moradi…

lit., “provided with notches, grooves, vertebrae”; the miraculous sword of Imam ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭāleb, with two blades or points, which became a symbol of his courage on the battlefield. A version of this article is available in print Volume VII, Fascicle 6, pp. 566-568 ḎU’L- FAQĀR (lit., “provided with notches, grooves, vertebrae”), the “miraculous sword” of Imam ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭāleb, with two blades or points, which became a symbol of his courage on the battlefield. According to some sources, it was taken as booty at the battle of Badr (2/624) b…

In Volume 6: Indices back to overview K Kabūdar-Āhangī, M. Jaʿfar b. Ṣafar K̲h̲ān 4 318, 453, 682 Kābulī, ʿAbd Allāh 1–2 134 a Kābulī, Abū ’l-Qāsim M. 3 387 Kābulī, ʿInāyat Allāh 2 526 Kābulī, Maḥmūd 5 184 Kābūlī, Muẓaffar 1 350 (2) Kābulī, Yaḥ…

In Volume 6: Indices back to overview I ʿIbād Allāh 1 82 ( a) (1), 520 Ibn Abī l-Khair 5 21 Ibn al-Baiṭār, ʿAbd Allāh b. Aḥmad 2 370 Ibn al-Balk̲h̲ī 1 458 Ibn al-K̲h̲as̲h̲s̲h̲āb 1 89 Ibn al-Nafīs 2 355 (5) abridgm. Ibn al-Sāwajī 2 809, 860 (2); 4 27…

Ḥamza Mīrzā, Crown Prince (976–994/1568–1586), son of the Ṣafawid shah Muḥammad Khudābandah (r. 985–996/1577–1587). Killed in the prime of his youth, his short life illustrates the perpetual tribal wrangling that plagued the Ṣafawid state in the 10th/16th century.Sulṭān Ḥamza Mīrzā was the second son of Khudābandah, a ‘ mīrzā’ or prince, and Khayr al-Nisāʾ Begum, a Māzandarānī, who was given the title Mahd-i ʿUlyā after her husband ascended the throne. Ḥamza Mīrzā was born in Herat during the reign of Shāh Ṭahmāsb I (r. 930–984/1524–1576…

Aḥmad b. al-Qāḍī b. Abī Bakr b. Yūsuf b. Ibrāhīm al-Timbuktāwī (b. late 1150s/1740s) was a Fulani scholar from present-day Mali who condemned as pagan the Hausa Bori possession-trance cult practised by enslaved and freed slaves of western and central Sudanic origin in Tunis and Morocco, calling for these “infidels” to be either killed or re-enslaved (Temimi). Al-Timbuktāwī was born to a Fulani family of jurists in al-Dawjaqa, which most likely is N’Dodjiga, an administrative district in the Mopti region of present-day Mali. His father was a qāḍī (judge) and may have settled in the…

a Turkic tribe of Khorasan, Gorgān, and Māzandarān. A version of this article is available in print Volume X, Fascicle 5, pp. 498 GERĀYLĪ, a Turkic tribe of Khorasan, Gorgān, and Māzandarān. According to Eʿtemād-al-Salṭana (pp. 157-58), the Gerāylī are descendents of the once powerful Kereit of Mongolia, whose leader, Wang Khan, was defeated by Čengīz Khan (q.v.) in 1203. But there is no solid evidence to support this claim. Nor is there any way to substantiate Eʿtemād-al-Salṭana’s conjecture that the Gerāylī accompan…

Mahmud Nedim Paşa (Maḥmūd Nedīm, 1232–1300/1817–83) was an Ottoman bureaucrat, governor, and grand vizier. He was born in Istanbul in 1232/1817 as the third son of Gürcü Mehmed Necib (Meḥmed Necīb), who was the Baruthane Nazırı (Bārūtkhāne Nāẓırı, Director of Powder Mills) at the time. At the age of fourteen, Mahmud Nedim completed his education under his father’s tutorship and entered the secretarial office of the Sadaret Mektubi Kalemi (Sadāret Mektūbī Qalemi, Grand Vizierate) in 1246/1831. Duri…

(Neẓāmi of Konya; d. 1469-73?), poet in Persian, Arabic, and Turkish. NEẒĀMI QUNAVI (Neẓāmi of Konya), also known as Neẓāmi Qaramāni (d. 1469-73?), poet in Persian, Arabic, and Turkish. We have very little information on his life. He was born in the time of the Qaramanid dynasty, probably between 1435 and 1440, the son of Mollā Wali-al-Din, a well-known preacher and master of a religious order in Konya. After his basic schooling, his father sent him to Persia to further his education. There, he improved his…

(d. 1781), a major contender for supremacy in western Iran after the death of Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1736-47). A version of this article is available in print Volume III, Fascicle 2, pp. 173-174 ĀZĀD KHAN AFḠĀN (d. 1195/1781), a major contender for supremacy in western Iran after the death of Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1148-60/1736-47). Āzād was the son of Solaymān of the Ḡalzay (also written Ḡalīčāʾī, Ḡalījī) Pashtuns of Kabul. He joined Nāder Shah’s army, probably after the fall of Kabul in 1738, and participated in subsequent campaigns in India and Iran. …

ḤOSAYN PASHA KHAN, the head of the royal guards ( kešīkčībāšī) and minister of court under Moẓaffar-al-Dīn Shah (r. 1896-1907). A version of this article is available in print Volume III, Fascicle 4, pp. 437-438 BAHĀDOR JANG, AMIR, ḤOSAYN PASHA KHAN, the head of the royal guards ( kešīkčībāšī) and minister of court under Moẓaffar-al-Dīn Shah (r. 1313-24/1896-1907) and the head of the royal guards and minister of war ( sepahsālār-e aʿẓam) under Moḥammad-ʿAlī Shah Qājār (r. 1324-27/1907-9). Born (ca. 1271/1855) into a family of military tradition in Azerbaijan, he wa…

a Kurdish tribe in the dehestāns of Qūratū, Ḏohāb and Jagarlū in the šahrestān of Qaṣr-e Šīrīn, on the Iraqi border. A version of this article is available in print Volume III, Fascicle 5, pp. 532-533 BĀJALĀN, a Kurdish tribe which has settled in the dehestāns of Qūratū, Ḏohāb and Jagarlū in the šahrestān of Qaṣr-e Šīrīn, on the Iraqi border (Kayhān, Joḡrāfīā II, p. 60). According to H. C. Rawlinson, the tribe moved from the Mosul area to the Ḏohāb area in the eighteenth century (“Notes on a March from Zoháb … to Kirmánsháh,” JRGS 9, 1839, p. 107). Its link to the Mosul area is confirmed …

Lütfi (Luṭfī) Paşa (c.893–970/c.1488–1562–3) was an Ottoman statesman and grand vizier, probably of Albanian origin, who was recruited through the devşirme (periodic levy of male Christian children to serve in the Janissary corps or palace administration) and entered the palace during the reign of Bayezid (Bāyezīd) II (r. 886–918/1481–1512). He held several positions in the palace, and after graduating from palace service he rose gradually to higher positions, unlike the unusual promotion of İbrahim (Ibrāhīm, d. 94…

Kapudan (Qapūdān) Paşa was the title of the grand admiral of Ottoman navy as well as the governor of the province of Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid (Jazāʾir-i Baḥr-i Safīd, the Aegean islands). Derived from the Venetian dialect capitán, kapudan was used by the Ottomans to designate “naval commander” from the middle of the ninth/fifteenth century onwards. The Ottoman navy was initially organised by Saruca (Ṣaruca) Paşa (d. before 818/1415), sancakbeyi ( sancaqbeği, district governor) of Gelibolu (Gallipoli), after Bayezid (Bāyezīd) I (r. 791–804/1389–1402) gave him the tas…

In Volume 1-2: Biography, Additions, and Corrections | Some Miscellaneous Historical Works previous chapter: 13.17 General and Miscellaneous § 1668. (1) al-ʿAjāʾib, accounts of marvellous events in the reigns of Akbar and…

Abuzar Ahmadi: Dār al-Funūn; Dawāzdah Imām; Dīwān al-ʿArḍ; Epic (ḥamāsa); Evil eye Alexander Khaleeli: Abū al-Qāsim Findiriskī; al-Bāṭirqānī; al-Bursī; al-Bustī, Abū al-Qāsim; al-Dāraquṭnī; al-Dawr wa al-tasalsul; al-Dīnawarī, Abū Ḥanīfa; al-Faḍl b. Shādhān; al-Fārābī; al-Farghānī; al-Fuḍayl b. ʿIyāḍ; al-Ḥāfiẓ li-Dīn Allāh; al-Ḥāmidī; al-Ḥasan b. Nūḥ; al-Ḥasan b. Nūh al-Qamarī; al-Ḥasan b. Sahl; al-Ḥaskānī; al-Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī; al-Ḥurr b. Yazīd al-Riyāḥī; al-Ḥuwayzī; Bakr b. Wāʾil; Banū Isrāʾīl; Bazīghiyya; B…

Abū Bakr Aḥmad b. ʿUmar (or ʿAmr) b. Muhayr al-Shaybānī al-Khaṣṣāf (d. 261/874) was an important jurist of the early Ḥanafī school. His eponym, al-Khaṣṣāf (the cobbler), is generally believed to depict the modesty of his early life, in which he made his living by mending shoes (al-Laknawī, 29–30). He is famous for his expertise particularly in the fields of endowment (waqf), judicial conduct (adab al-qāḍī), legal devices or stratagems (ḥiyal), and inheritance (farāʾiḍ). He is known to have acquired his notion of Ḥanafī law first from his father, ʿUmar b. Muhayr, who studied fiqh (Islamic…

Al-Fāshir (El Fasher), current population approximately 260,000, is the capital of the wilāya (province) of North Darfur in the Republic of Sudan and was the capital of the independent Darfur sultanate from 1791 to 1916. In 1785, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Aḥmad Bukr (r. 1785–1801) took power in the Darfur sultanate, today the western region of Sudan. Seeking a new seat of power, he moved the centre of the sultanate from the west to the east of the Jebel Marra mountains and established his royal encampment (fāshir) at a well and caravan centre called the Rahad Tandalī in 1791–2. The new …