, the most famous sanctuary of Islam, called the temple or house of God ( Bayt Allāh ). It is situated almost in the centre of the great mosque in Mecca. Muslims throughout the whole world direct their prayers to this sanctuary, where every year hundreds of thousands of pilgrims make the greater ( ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ ) or lesser ( ʿumra ) pilgrimage. Around it they gather and make their ritual circuits; around the Kaʿba the young Muslim community spent the early years of Islam. For the Muslim community the Kaʿba holds a place analogous to that of the temple in Jerusalem for ancient Jewry. I. The Kaʿba and …

, a religious society founded by Indian Muslims in their period of great pan-Islamic fervour just before World War One. The And̲j̲uman was started by Mawlānā ʿAbd al-Bārī [ q.v. above] and Mus̲h̲īr Ḥusayn Ḳidwāī [ q.v.] of Lucknow who hoped to be able to defend Mecca and Medina by raising ten million rupees to build dreadnoughts and airships and to maintain armed forces. Such an ambitious programme proved impracticable, and the final constitution of the organisation published early in 1332/1914 declared that to defend the Holy Pla…

[see kaʿba ].

[see al-kaʿba ].

(a.), in early Arabia, the guardian of a shrine (abstract noun, sidāna ). The root s - d - n contains the sense of "veil, curtain", which puts sādin on a level with ḥād̲j̲ib , the first term denoting the guardian of a shrine, and the second, the "door-keeper" of a palace, hence "chamberlain". The ḥād̲j̲ib acts under the orders of someone else, whereas the sādin acts on his own initiative ( LʿA , xvii, 69, citing Ibn Barrī). However, the two terms may be found juxtaposed, e.g. in Ibn His̲h̲ām, who says, "The Arabs possessed, as well as the Kaʿba, tawāg̲h̲īṭ which were shrines ( buyūt : cf. Fahd, La divin…

(a.), the rising point of a celestial body, usually a star, on the local horizon. This concept was important in Islamic folk astronomy [see anwāʾ and manāzil on some aspects of this tradition], as distinct from mathematical astronomy [see ʿilm al-Hayʾa ], because it was by the risings and settings of the sun and stars that the ḳibla ¶ [ q.v.] or direction of Mecca was usually determined in popular practice. The terms used for the rising and setting points of the sun were usually mas̲h̲riḳ and mag̲h̲rib , maṭlaʿ being generally reserved for stars. The directions…

, Banū , the name of the keepers of the Kaʿba ( sadana , ḥad̲j̲aba [see sādin ; ḥād̲j̲ib ]), whose authority does not extend over the whole of the sanctuary ( masd̲j̲id al-ḥarām ), nor even as far as the well of Zamzam and its annexes. They are the Banū S̲h̲ayba or S̲h̲aybiyyūn and have as their head a zūʿīm or s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ . Modern works only give brief references to them. Snouck Hurgronje gave the days on which they opened the door of the Kaʿba. He noted that they only admitted the faithful on payment of a fee and quoted the witty Meccan saying: “The Banū S̲…

(a.) verbal noun of ṭāfa with bi of place, “encircling”; in the language of religious cults the running round or circumambulation of a sacred object, a stone, altar, etc. There are traces of the rite having existed among the Israelites, cf. especially Ps. xxvi. 6, and the ceremony of the feast of booths in the time of the Second Temple, where the altar is circumambulated once in the first six days and seven times on the seventh. The rite, however, was also found among Persians, Indians, Buddhists, Romans and others and is t…

(a.), from the root s-ʿ-y , used 30 times in the Ḳurʾān in such senses as “to work, apply oneself to, denounce, seek to earn one’s living, run after s. th.” etc., but in the sense concerning here denoting the pilgrim’s running between al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa. These are two hills to the south and north-west of the Kaʿba respectively, linked by a masʿā , course, which the pilgrim follows after having made the sevenfold circuit of the Kaʿba, at his or her arrival and his or her departure. This following of the course, the saʿy , is likewise sevenfold; it starts in al-Ṣafā, and goes to al-Marwa, ca. 300 m a…

, a sacred hill on the eastern edge of Mecca. Rising abruptly from the valley floor, it overlooks the Great Mosque a few hundred meters away. The Kaʿba corner containing the Black Stone points towards the hill, at the foot of which is al-Ṣafā, the southern end of al-Masʿā. Buildings now hem the hill in on nearly every side. Muslim tradition holds that this was the first mountain created by God. Adam and other ancients are sometimes said to be buried there. The hill’s older name was al-Amīn, give…

, an Arabian god whose worship was fostered in Mecca by the K̲h̲uzāʿī ʿAmr b. Luḥayy [ q.v.] in the first half of the 3rd century A.D. Represented at first by a baetyl, like most of the Arab deities, it was later personified, with human features, by a statue made of cornelian, with the right arm truncated (cf. Judges III, 15, XX, 16) and which the ¶ Ḳurays̲h̲īs are said to have replaced by a golden arm (al-Azraḳī, Ak̲h̲bār Makka , ed. Wüstenfeld, Leipzig 1858, 74). It was from a town with thermal springs ( ḥamma ) that it was apparently brought to the Ḥid̲j̲āz. Having…

“lickers of blood”, the name given to a group of clans of Ḳurays̲h̲. According to tradition, Ḳuṣayy [ q.v.] had allocated to the different subdivisions of Ḳurays̲h̲ the quarters which they were to occupy in Mecca and had entrusted to the Banū ʿAbd al-Dār various local offices: administration of the dār al-nadwa and bearing the standard ( liwāʾ ), the furnishing of provisions ( rifāda ) and drink ( siḳāya ) to the pilgrims, and custodianship of the Kaʿba ( ḥid̲j̲āba [see kaʿba ]). However, the Banū ʿAbd Manāf thought themselves more worthy of these privile…

, a pair of gods worshipped at ¶ Mecca before Islam. Several orientalists of the last century, such as Rudolph Krehl and François Lenormant, saw in them, not unreasonably, replicas of Baʿl and Baʿla. Indeed Isāf and Nāʾila do display the essential characteristics distinguishing this pair of gods from the many avatars known in the various Semitic religions: physical représentation by two sacred stones erected close to each other, or by two parallel hills; symbolic représentation of…

b. Nufayl, a so-called ḥanīf [ q.v.] and “seeker after true religion”, who lived in Mecca before Muḥammad’s mission (though some pronounced him a Companion of the Prophet). In a major battle before Islam Zayd reportedly led the Ḳurays̲h̲ [ q.v.] clan to which he belonged, the ʿAdī b. Kaʿb. The cycle of reports about him in Islamic historiography all but presents him as Muḥammad’s precursor. Some scholars even went as far as declaring him a prophet who received revelations, and a ¶ messenger sent to mankind. Precisely like Muḥammad before his call, Zayd is said to have practiced taḥannut̲h̲ [ q.…

, aTurkicized Arabic expression meaning sacred trust or deposit, the name given to a collection of relics preserved in the treasury of the Topkapi palace in Istanbul. The most important are a group of objects said to have belonged to the Prophet; they included his cloak ( k̲h̲irḳa-i s̲h̲erīf [ q.v.]), a prayer-rug, a flag, a bow, a staff, a pair of horseshoes, as well as a tooth, some hairs (see liḥya ), and a stone bearing the Prophet’s footprint. In addition there are weapons, utensils and garments said to have belonged to the ancient prophets, to the early Caliph…

, "safe", "secure"; in this and the more frequent form āmīn (rarely āmmīn , rejected by grammarians) it is used like āmēn and (Syriac) amīn with Jews and Christians as a confirmation or corroboration of prayers, in the meaning "answer Thou" or "so be it", see examples in al-Mubarrad, al-Kāmil , 577 note 6; Ibn al-Ḏj̲azarī, al-Nas̲h̲r ii, Cairo 1345, 442 f., 447. Its efficacy is enhanced at especially pious prayers, e.g. those said at the Kaʿba or those said for the welfare of other Muslims, when also the angels are said to say amīn. Especially it is said after sūra i, without being part of the sūra. …

, the state of so-called major ritual impurity. It is caused by marital intercourse, to which the religious law assimilates any effusio seminis. One who is in This state is called d̲j̲unub , and can only become ritually clean again by the so-called major ritual ablution ( g̲h̲usl [ q.v.]) or by the tayammum [ q.v.]. On the other hand, the law prescribes for a Muslim in the state of so-called minor impurity the minor ritual ablution ( wuḍūʾ [ q.v.]). The distinction is based on the wording of Ḳurʾān, V, 6. The d̲j̲unub cannot perform a valid ṣalāt he may not make a ṭawāf round…

“the oilman”, a religious devotee of Muslim India, was born at an unknown date, some time in the 10th/16th century, at Makhiwal, on the bank of the Chenab, in the Pand̲j̲āb. A critical change in Ḥassū’s life came when he was twelve. He met one of the living “nine naths of Gorakhnath”. The latter recognised in him his sixty-first and premier disciple, who had spent 82 years in severe austerities before his birth. Ḥassū now embarked on his career as a saint. He went to Lahore where he worked as a porter, but subsequently became…

, an ancestor of Muḥammad in the fifth generation and restorer of the pre-Islamic cult of the Kaʿba in Mecca. His genealogy is unanimously given in all sources as Ḳusayy b. Kilāb b. Murra b. Kaʿb b. Luʾayy b. Fihr or Ḳurays̲h̲ b. G̲h̲ālib (Ibn al-Kalbī-Caskel, Ǧamhara , Tab. 4), and his life and exploits are recorded by our sources in three recensions which only differ from each other in trifling details; these go back to Muḥammad al-Kalbī (d. 146/763-4), Ibn Iṣhāḳ (d. 150/767) and ʿAbd al-Malik b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. Ḏj̲u…

, the legendary founder of polytheism in Arabia and the ancestor of the Ḵh̲uzāʿa [ q.v.] at Mecca. The Kaʿba being, according to the Ḳurʾān (iii, 96/0), "the first sanctuary appointed for mankind", it was necessary to believe that polytheism was a later corruption. Neither the Ḏj̲urhum, Ismāʿīlʾs relatives, nor the Prophet’s tribe, the Ḳurays̲h̲, were likely to be responsible for it. So the blame was laid on ʿAmr b. Luḥayy, the leader of the Ḵh̲uzāʿa, who was said to have expelled the Ḏj̲urhum from Mecca. He w…

denotes, according to Ḳurʾān, II, 125 (... wa-ttak̲h̲id̲h̲ū min maḳāmi Ibrāhīmi ¶ muṣallan ...) a place of prayer. Some commentators interpreted, however, the word muṣallan as “a place of invocations and supplications”, a definition which would considerably modify the status of the place. The reading of the verb in the phrase became the subject of discussion. Several scholars read it in the perfect tense “... wa-ttak̲h̲ad̲h̲ū ...”, and they rendered it”... and they took to themselves Abraham’s station for a place of prayer”, linking it w…

, the name of the Mosque of Mecca. The name is already found in the pre-Islamic period (Horovitz, Koranische Studien , 140-1) in Ḳays b. al-K̲h̲aṭīm, ed. Kowalski, v. 14: “By Allāh, the Lord of the Holy Masd̲j̲id and of that which is covered with Yemen stuffs, which are embroidered with hempen thread” (?). It would be very improbable if a Medinan poet meant by these references anything other than the Meccan sanctuary. The expression is also fairly frequent in the Ḳurʾān after the second Meccan period (Horovitz, op. cit.) and in various connections; it is a grave sin on the part ¶ of the polythei…

(A.), deriving from a root k̲h̲-y-r which expresses the idea of option or choice, consists of entrusting God with the choice between two or more possible options, either through piety and submission to His will, or else through inability to decide oneself, on account of not knowing which choice is the most advantageous one. To the first category belong the ak̲h̲yār or “chosen”, who regulate their lives according to the model inspired by God in the Ḳurʾān and the Law; to the second belong the mustak̲h̲īrūn , those who seek to escape from indecision with the h…

(a.), lit. “a flat object, a plaque, a leaf, whence “a surface or material on which one can write”, applied especially to fragments of the Ḳurʾān or ḥadīt̲h̲ or any other document of a solemn nature, whence finally, the written texts themselves. The pl. ṣuḥuf is uncommon for feminine nouns (but cf. madīna , pl. mudun “town”, safīna pl. sufun “ship”). 1. Linguistic usage. The term appears contemporaneously with the advent of Islam, but must evidently have existed before then. In Ḳurʾān, XLIII, 71, ṣiḥāf also appears as a pl. of ṣaḥfa , with the sense “plates, platters”, but ṣuḥuf appears eight…

(a.), wind. Arabic traditional knowledge of the winds is gathered in ethno-astronomical and meteorological treatises such as the kutub al-anwāʾ [see anwāʾ ] and other lexicographical treatises written by Arabic philologists from the early 3rd/9th centuries onwards. In these treatises, nearly one hundred words depict different kinds of winds according to their effects, qualities and direction. Very little information is given about their geographical location in the Arabian peninsula or the nature of the wind, if we except the fact that, in the anwāʾ syste…

, a kind of town hall in Mecca in the time of Muḥammad. The building was to the north of the Kaʿba, on the other side of the square in which the ṭawāf took place. It was the gathering place of the nobles ( malaʾ ). The Dār al-Nadwa is said to have been built by Ḳuṣayy [ q.v.], who is taken to be the ancestor of the Ḳurays̲h̲ and founder of the Kaʿba. He bequeathed it to ʿAbd al-Dār and then to ʿAbd Manāf and his son Hās̲h̲im and Hās̲h̲im’s descendants. “All matters of import to the Ḳurays̲h̲” are said to have taken place there up to the coming of Islam…

, or Taḳī al-Dīn Muḥammad al-Ḥusaynī al-Awḥadī, Persian anthologist, lexicographer and poet. He was born at Iṣfahān on 3 Muḥarram 973/31 January 1565, into a family with a Ṣūfī tradition from Balyān in Fārs. One of his paternal ancestors was the 5th/11th-century S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abū ʿAlī al-Daḳḳāḳ. During his adolescence he studied in S̲h̲īrāz, where he presented his early poems to a circle of poets and was encouraged by ʿUrfī [ q.v.]. Returning to Iṣfahān, he attracted the attention of the young S̲h̲āh ʿAbbās I and joined his entourage. In 1003/1594-5, Taḳī retired for six years to the ʿatabāt …

(or K̲h̲ulaṣa ). D̲h̲u ’l-K̲h̲alaṣa refers to the sacred stone (and the holy place where it was to be found) which was worshipped by the tribes of Daws, K̲h̲at̲h̲ʿam, Bad̲j̲īla, the Azd of the Sarāt mountains and the Arabs of Tabāla. “It was a white quartziferous rock, bearing the sculpture of something like a crown. It was in Tabāla at the place called al-ʿAblāʾ, i.e., White Rock ( TʿA , viii, 3) between Mecca and the Yemen and seven nights’ march from the former ( i.e., approximately 192 kilometres or 119 miles). The guardians of the sanctuary were the Banū Umāma of the Bāhila…

, originally called ʿAbd ʿAmr or ʿAbd al-Kaʿba, the most prominent early Muslim convert from B. Zuhra of Ḳurays̲h̲. He took part in the Hid̲j̲ra to Abyssinia and in that to Medina, and fought at Badr and the other main battles. He commanded a force of 700 men sent by Muḥammad in S̲h̲aʿbān 6/December 627 to Dūmat al-Ḏj̲andal; the Christian chief, al-Aṣbag̲h̲ (or al-Aṣyaʿ) al-Kalbī, became a Muslim and made a ‘treaty, and ʿAbd al-Raḥmān married his daughter Tumāḍir (but cf. Caetani, Annali , i, 700). By his shrewdness and skill as a merchant he made an enor…

, Abu ’l-K̲h̲aṭṭāb muslim (or Salm, or ʿAbd Allāh) b. Muḥriz , famous musician and singer of Mecca, who lived in the 1st-2nd/7th-8th centuries. A mawlā of Persian origin of the ʿAbd al-Dār b. Kusayy and the son of a sādin of the Kaʿba, he was first the pupil of Ibn Misd̲j̲aḥ [ q.v.], and then of ʿAzzat al-Maylāʾ [ q.v.], going to Medina to receive lessons from her; he then completed his musical education in Persia and Syria, where he studied Greek music. He is said to have later chosen what seemed best to him from these different musical traditions and i…

, the name of two valleys on the way from Mecca to al-Ṭāʾif, distinguished as S̲h̲aʾmiyya (Syrian, northern) and Yamāniya (Yemenite, southern). The name is presumably due to an abundance of palms ( nak̲h̲l) in the valleys. On a height in Syrian Nak̲h̲la there was an idol of al-ʿUzzā which was specially venerated by Ḳurays̲h̲ and Banū Kināna. Some regarded the circumambulation of al-ʿUzzā as an essential for the completion of the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ to the Kaʿba. Three Samura trees were closely associated with the deity. After the conquest of Mecca, Muḥa…

al-G̲h̲ifārī , a Companion of Muḥammad. His name is commonly given as Ḏj̲undub b. Ḏj̲unāda, but other names are also mentioned. He is said to have worshipped one God before his conversion. When news of Muḥammad reached him he sent his brother to Mecca to make enquiries, and being dissatisfied with his report, he went himself. One story says he met Muḥammad with Abū Bakr at the Kaʿba, another that ʿAlī took him secretly to Muḥammad. He immediately believed, and is surprisingl…

, the honorific given by the ʿAbbāsid caliph al-Amīn [ q.v.] to his son Mūsā in 194/809, when he designated him as heir presumptive in place of al-Maʾmūn [ q.v.], whereas their father Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd had specified that the inheritance of the caliphate should pass to al-Maʾmūn and had taken the precaution of sending a circular letter on this subject to all the provinces and of attaching to the kisāʾ of the Kaʿba a copy of this, for the tearing-down of which al-Faḍl b. al-Rabīʾ [ q.v.] sent a ḥād̲j̲ib . It was in effect this vizier of al-Amīn’s who led the calip…

, Ḥusayn b. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan , 10th/16th century author of a once popular history of Muḥammad, entitled Taʾrīk̲h̲ al-k̲h̲amīs fī aḥwāl nafs nafīs and preserved in numerous MSS and printed twice (Cairo 1283, 1302). The work is furnished in addition with a brief sketch of subsequent Muslim history. The brief enumeration of Ottoman rulers at the end stops in some MSS with Süleymān Ḳānūnī but usually ends with Murād III (982/1574). The author is also credited with a detailed description of the sa…

(a.), verbal noun, and taḥannat̲h̲a , verb, are words found in some of the accounts of Muḥammad’s first prophetic experience. Already in the earliest texts which are available to us, they are accompanied by variant interpretative glosses and explanations, and their significance has been debated in both traditional and modern scholarship. In Ibn His̲h̲ām’s Sīra (151-2), Ibn Isḥāḳ reports that Muḥammad used to spend one month each year making d̲j̲iwār [ q.v.] at Ḥirāʾ—"that was a part of the taḥannut̲h̲ of Ḳurays̲h̲ ( mimmā taḥannat̲h̲a bihi Ḳurays̲h̲ ) in the Ḏj̲āhiliyya ". Tahạnnut̲h̲ …

(1873-1938), Indian Muslim leader. Elder of the famous “ʿAlī Brothers”, S̲h̲awkat was born at Rāmpūr on 10 March 1873. He received a “modern”, i.e. English, education at the insistence of his widowed mother, Ābādī Begum (who later played a significant role in the Indian freedom and K̲h̲ilāfat movements) despite the opposition of her male relatives. She pawned her personal jewellery to send S̲h̲awkat to a school in Bareilly, from where he went to the M.A.O. College, ʿAlīgaŕh. He did not show brilliance in his studies, but gained fame as a sportsman. After his graduation in 1895, S̲h̲aw…

or Sumayṭiyya (also S̲h̲umaṭiyya or Sumaṭiyya), a S̲h̲īʿī sect whose name is derived from that of one of its heads, a certain Yaḥyā b. Abi ’l-S̲h̲umayṭ. The sect recognised as imām and successor of D̲j̲aʿfar al-Ṣādiḳ [ q.v.] his youngest son Muḥammad, who not only bore the name of the Prophet but also is said to have resembled him physically. After the failure in 200/815 of the S̲h̲īʿī rebellion of Abu ’l-Sarāyā [ q.v.] in Kūfa against the caliph al-Maʾmūn (al-Ṭabarī, hi, 976 ff.), Muḥammad b. D̲j̲aʿfar, who then lived in Mecca as an old man, was urged by his followe…

, Indian lawyer and politician (1878-1937), born at Gadia, Bārābankī district, and educated at Lucknow and London (Barrister-at-Law). He received the Order of ʿOt̲h̲māniyya from the Sultan of Turkey, and proposed the idea of the And̲j̲uman-i K̲h̲uddām-i Kaʿba [ q.v. in Suppl.] (1913-18) for the protection of Mecca and other holy places as a reaction to the Turco-Italian and Balkan wars (Y.B. Mathur, Muslims and changing India, Delhi 1972, 145-64). He played a leading part in the K̲h̲ilāfat Movement [ q.v.] representing the militant trend within the movement, presiding over …

, minor ritual impurity which, in fiḳh, is distinguished from major impurity ( d̲j̲anāba [ q.v.]). Ḥadat̲h̲ is incurred: 1.—by contact with an unclean substance ( k̲h̲abat̲h̲ , nad̲j̲as ) which soils the person or clothing, etc.: sperm, pus, urine, fermented liquor, and some other kinds. There is some controversy about corpses or the bodies of animals. It is only in the view of the Mālikī school that the pig and dog, when alive, do not soil. Except with the S̲h̲īʿīs, contact with a human being never so…

(a.), verbal noun of form II from the root k-b-r in the denominative sense, to pronounce the formula Allāhu akbar . It is already used in this sense in the Ḳurʾān (e.g. LXXIV, 3; XVII, 111 with God as the object). On the different explanations of the elative akbar in this formula, see LʿA , s.v., and the Ḳurʾānic elative akram also applied to God (XCVI, 3) and aʿlā (XCII, 20; LXXXVII, 1). The formula, as the briefest expression of the absolute superiority of the One God, is used in Muslim life in different circumstances, in which the idea of God, His greatness and go…

, the biblical Ishmael, is already mentioned in four places in the Ḳurʾān which date from before the Hid̲j̲ra, in a list of holy men of antiquity: in Sūra XIX, 54 f. it is said of him: “He was one who spoke the promise truly, and he was a messenger and a prophet. He enjoined upon his people the prayer and the almsgiving, and was in his Lord’s eyes approved”; in Sūra XXXVIII, 48 he is mentioned together with Elisha (al-Yasaʿ) and D̲h̲u ’l-Kifl as “one of the good”; in Sūra XXI, 85 f. together wit…

, people observing rigorous religious taboos, especially Ḳurays̲h̲ and certain neighbouring tribes. The word is the plural of aḥmas , “hard, strong (in fighting or in religion)”, but one of the Ḥums is called aḥmasī (fern, aḥmasiyya ). Ibn His̲h̲ām (126) thinks that taḥammus , the observance of the taboos in question, was an innovation of Ḳurays̲h̲ about the time of Muḥammad’s birth, and some changes may have been made to emphasize the superiority of Ḳurays̲h̲ to other tribes; but the nature of the taboos makes it li…

(a.), pl. anṣāb , Hebrew maṣṣeb̲ōt . The plural, more often used, denotes the blocks ofstone on which the blood of the victims sacrificed for idols ( awt̲h̲ān , aṣnām ) was poured, as well as sepulchral stones and those marking out the sacred enclosure ( ḥimā ) of the sanctuary (cf. J. Wellhausen, Reste2 , 101-2; W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites , 201 ff.). In nomadic circles, the nuṣub has been regarded in a few rare instances as the symbol of the divinity (cf. Ibn Saʿd, Ṭabaḳāt , iv/1, 159-60; R. Dozy, Essai sur l’histoire de l’Islamisme , translated from the…

, an ancient Arab tribe reckoned to the ʿArab al-ʿĀriba (see art. ʿarab , d̲j̲azīrat al-, vi). According to later standard Arab tradition, D̲j̲urhum was descended from Yaḳtān (Ḳaḥtān). The tribe migrated from the Yaman to Mecca. After a protracted struggle with another tribe Ḳatūra (also referred to as ʿAmālīḳ), led by al-Sumaydiʿ, D̲j̲urhum under their chief (called Muḍād b. ʿAmr, al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Muḍāḍ, etc.) gained control of the Kaʿba. This they retained till driven out by Bakr b. ʿAbd Manāt of K̲h̲uzāʿa. Th…

b. al-Ḥakam b. Yūsuf al-Balk̲h̲ī , governor and financial controller of Egypt from 1 Ramaḍān 200/3 April 816. On 1 Rabīʿ I 201/27 Sept. 816, the troops openly mutinied against him, and al-Maʾmūn was forced to remove al-Sarī from his post and replace him by Sulaymān b. G̲h̲ālib; al-Sarī was put in prison and Sulaymān entered upon his office on Tuesday, 4 Rabīʿ I 201/30 Sept. 816. He was removed from office as early as 1 S̲h̲aʿbān 201/22 Feb. 817, as the result of a repeated revol…

b. Ḥabīb b. ʿAbd S̲h̲ams b. ʿAbd Manāf b. Ḳuṣayy , Arab general. The name ʿAbd al-Raḥmān was given him by Muḥammad on his conversion in place of his former name ʿAbd al-Kaʿba. His first command was in Sid̲j̲istān in succession to al-Rabīʿ b. Ziyād in the latter years of the caliphate of ʿUt̲h̲mān, when he conquered Zarand̲j̲ and Zamīn-i Dāwar and made a treaty with the ruler of Kirmān. He withdrew after the death of ʿUt̲h̲mān; according to Chinese sources, Pēroz, the son of Yazdigird III, then attempted to establish himself in Sid̲j̲istān (Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-kiue …

, a jewel used by the ʿAbbāsid and Fāṭimid [ q.vv.] caliphs as one of the insignia of kingship. According to the description of the Fāṭimid s̲h̲amsa , given by Ibn Zūlāḳ (quoted by al-Maḳrīzī, Ittiʿāẓ al-ḥunafāʾ , i, 140-2), it was not a sunshade, as has been guessed (de Goeje, in al-Ṭabarī, Glossarium , p. cccxvi), but a kind of suspended crown, made out of gold or silver, studded with pearls and precious stones, and hoisted up by the aid of a chain. The s̲h̲amsa, therefore, is not to be confounded with the miẓalla [ q.v.] or sunshade which belonged also to the royal insignia. The model of the s̲h̲amsa…

(a.), image, representation and, especially, idol (from the Common Semitic root ṣ-l-m , cf. Akk. ṣalmu , Aram, ṣalmā , Hebr. ṣelem , etc., by a shift of l into n, see Gesenius-Buhl, 684); for Old Testament parallels, see inter alia, Num. xxxiii. 52; II Kings xi. 18; Ezek., vii. 20; Amos, v. 26). It is in this sense that it is found in the Ḳurʾān, where the pl. aṣnām is cited five times (VI, 74; VII, 138; XIV, 35; XXI, 57; XXVI, 71). Ṣanam progressively replaces nuṣub (pl. anṣāb , Hebr. maṣṣebōt̲ , Gen. xxxv. 14), a term denoting “carved stones over which the blood …

(A.), 10th form of the root ḳ-s-m which embraces two groups of meanings, the one of a magical nature and the other divinatory. The first is applied to formulae and methods for conjuring up demons, for adjuration and exorcism; this latter is the meaning acquired by the 2nd and 4th forms, ḳassama and aḳsama , particularly in the Christian Arab world, clearly influenced by the Hebrew ḳesem ( e.g., Deut. xxiii, 23), which has the same meaning. This usage is late, colloquial, and most frequently found among Christian Arabs, who also employ ḳisām , “adjuration, exorcism …

(in English normally “Mecca”, in French “La Mecque”), the most sacred city of Islam, where the Prophet Muḥammad was born and lived for about 50 years, and where the Kaʿba [ q.v.] is situated. 1. The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods Geographical description. Mecca is located in the Ḥid̲j̲āz about 72 km. inland from the Red Sea port of Jedda (D̲j̲udda [ q.v.]), in lat. 21° 27′ N. and long. 39° 49′ E. It is now the capital of the province ( manātiḳ idāriyya ) of Makka in Suʿūdī Arabia, and has a normal population of between 200,000 and 300,000, which …

(a.), the “lesser pilgrimage”, al-ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ al-ṣag̲h̲īr , one of the acts of devotion ( ʿibāda [ q.v.]) forming part of the Muslim ritual. 1. Etymology Muslim scholars claiming authority in linguistic matters put forward two possible original senses of the word ʿumra . The first is that the term is said to have had, like the word ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ . [ q.v.] “pilgrimage”, the sense of “making one’s way towards some place or person” ( al-ḳaṣd ). The second, more frequently proposed, is that the term would mean more precisely “visit” ( al-ziyāra ). See al-Azharī, al-Zāhir fī alfāẓ al-S̲h̲āfiʿī …

(a.), image, form, shape, e.g. ṣūrat al-arḍ , “the image of the earth”, ṣūrat ḥimār , “the form of an ass” (Muslim, Ṣalāt , trad. 115), or face, countenance (see below). Taṣāwīr are rather pictures; see for these, taṣwīr . Ṣūra and taṣwīra are therefore in the same relation to one another as the Hebrew demūt and ṣelem . 1. In theological and legal doctrine. The Biblical idea according to which man was created in God’s ṣelem (Gen. i. 27) has most probably passed into Ḥadīt̲h̲. It occurs in three passages in classical Ḥadīt̲h̲; the exegesis is uncertain and in general unwilling to adopt i…

, an early Arabian monotheist and contemporary of the Prophet. Biographical details concerning Waraḳa are few in number and legendary in character, since in one way or another they all relate to his kerygmatic role in the narrative of Muḥammad’s earliest revelation. Waraḳa was the son of Nawfal b. Asad b. ʿAbd al-ʿUzzā b. Ḳuṣayy, who is said to have been killed in the last “Battle of the Sacrilege” ( yawm al-Fid̲j̲ār al-āk̲h̲ir ) (Ibn al-Kalbī, D̲j̲amharat al-nasab , Beirut 1986, 68-9), and of Hind bt. Abī Kat̲h̲īr. He was thus the cousin of the Prophet’s first wife K̲h̲adīd̲j̲a [ q.v.], but u…

, governor for the Umayyads, first of Mecca and later, during almost the entire caliphate of His̲h̲ām b. ʿAbd al-Malik [ q.v.], of ʿIrāḳ. There his position may be compared with that of Ziyād under Muʿāwiya and al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲ under ʿAbd al-Malik. Information about K̲h̲ālid in the sources often seems to be the product of polemic between different political, religious, ethnic and tribal groups, and it should, therefore, be used cautiously. His clan, the Ḳasr, was a branch of Banū Bad̲j̲īla [ q.v.]. While his grandfather and great-grandfather are counted as Companions of th…

( Matthews’ Chinese-English dictionary, Revised American Edition 1969, characters no. 4310, 2266), Chinese Muslim interpreter and traveller who flourished during the 9th/15th century and who was the author of Ying-yai shenglan (“The overall survey of the ocean’s shores”), the best-known account of the early and mid-9th/15th century Ming Chinese maritime expeditions to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa. ¶ Ma Huan was born ca. 782/1380 in Kuei-chi, a district of Shao-hsing city, Chekiang Province. His home was about 24 miles south-…

, the tribe inhabiting Mecca in the time of Muḥammad and to which he belonged; the name, which may be a nickname, is mostly (e.g. Ibn His̲h̲ām, 61) said to come from taḳarrus̲h̲ , “a coming together, association”; but it is also possible (cf. Ṭabarī, i, 1104) that it is the diminutive of ḳirs̲h̲ , “shark”, and it could then be a totemic name like Kalb, etc. (A man called Ḳurays̲h̲, other than Fihr, is mentioned in Nasab Ḳurays̲h̲ , 12.7-9.) The tribe is taken to consist of the descendants of Fihr, and he himself is sometimes spoken of as Ḳurays̲h̲; bu…

is the soubriquet of a god borrowed from the Nabataeans, known in Aramaic as ds̲h̲r , Dusares (E. Littmann, T̲h̲amūd und Ṣafā , 30). These soubriquets for gods formed from the pronoun d̲h̲ū (feminine d̲h̲āt ) were of frequent use in Southern Arabia (G. Ryckmans, Les religions arabes préislamiques 2, 44-5; W. Caskel, Die alten semitischen Gottheiten , 108-9). According to Ibn al-Kalbī, D̲h̲u ’l-S̲h̲arā was a divinity of the Banu ’l-Hārit̲h̲ of the tribe of the Azd ( Kitāb al-Aṣnām , ed. Aḥmad Zakī 2, 37). Ibn His̲h̲ām records that D̲h̲u ’l-S̲h̲arā “was an image belonging to Daus and the ḥimā …

, Arabic word denoting both flax and linen. The Arabs already knew and esteemed linen fabrics in pre-Islamic times. In this early period these were usually called ḳubāṭī , i.e. Coptic stuff, since they were imported from Egypt. Until the later Middle Ages Egypt remained famous for its flax and its linen fabrics. The Geniza documents, which mainly date from the 5th/11th century, contain copious documentation on the flax trade. From these documents it appears that flax was mainly grown in Upper Egypt. Th…

, a place in Egypt celebrated in the Middle Ages, situated a few miles from Damietta, on the Western shore of the Lake of Tinnīs, now called Lake Manzala. This town existed before the Arab period, since it is mentioned as the see of a bishop (Σάτα). There is no reason for giving credence to the romantic story of the pseudo-al-Wāḳidī, which gives as the founder of this town a certain S̲h̲aṭā b. al-Hāmūk (var. al-Hāmirak), a relative of the famous Muḳawḳis [ q.v.]. This S̲h̲aṭā is presented to us as a deserter from the garrison of Damietta who helped to secure the possession of …

, paternal grandfather of Muḥammad. Passing through Medina on trading journeys to Syria, Hās̲h̲im b. ʿAbd Manāf married Salmā bint ʿAmr of the clan of ʿAdī b. al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ār of the Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲, by whom he had two children, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib (or S̲h̲ayba) and Ruḳayya. The mother and her son remained in her house in Medina, this apparently being the practice of her family in accordance with a matrilineal kinship system. Some time after Hās̲h̲im’s death his brother al-Muṭṭalib tried to strengthen h…

, the pilgrim’s guide in Mecca. The word literally means one who leads the ṭawāf [ q.v.]. The task of the muṭawwif is, however, by no means limited to assisting pilgrims from foreign lands, who entrust themselves to their guidance, to go through the ceremonies required at the circumambulation of the Kaʿba. On the contrary, they act as guides at the saʿy also and at all other ceremonies which are prescribed or only recommended for the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ or ʿumra [ q.vv.]. The muṭawwifs also cater very completely for the physical welfare of the pilgrims. As soon a…

, the Abraham of the Bible, plays in Islamic religious history an important role as the founder or reformer of the monotheistic Kaʿba cult. He is mentioned, in greater or less detail, in 25 sūra s of the Ḳurʾān. Moses is the only Biblical character who is mentioned more frequently, though this does not mean that Abraham is considered second to him in importance. In two sūras, which are to be dated from the first Meccan period, there is a reference to the “leaves, scrolls” ( ṣuḥuf ) of Abraham and Moses, by which presumably texts of revelation are meant (LXXXV…

, Abu ’l-Walīd ʿAbd Allāh b. Muḥammad b. Yūsuf b. Naṣr al-Azdī b. al-Faraḍī , Andalusian scholar, was born at Cordova on the night of Monday-Tuesday 22-3 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 351/22-3 December 962. He studied law, Traditions, literature, and history in his native town, particularly with Abū Zakariyyāʾ Yaḥyā b. Mālik b. ʿĀʾid̲h̲ and the ḳāḍī Muḥammad b. Yaḥyā b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-K̲h̲arrāz. In 382/992 he went to the east to perform the pilgrimage, and, when passing through Ḳayrawān, attended the lectures of the jurisconsult Ibn Abī Zayd al-Ḳayrawānī [ q.v.] and those of Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b.…

, a term used, in almost all its occurrences, as the opposite of the word islām , and which refers to the state of affairs in Arabia before the mission of the Prophet, to paganism (sometimes even that of non-Arab lands), the pre-Islamic period and the men of that time. From the morphological point of view, d̲j̲āhiliyya seems to be formed by the addition of the suffix -iyya, denoting an abstract, to the active participle djāhil , the exact sense of which is difficult to determine. I. Goldziher ( Muḥ . St., i, 219 ff.; analysis in Arabica , vii/3 (1960), 246-9), remarking that djāhil is opposed to ḥalīm…

(a.), literally “the wearers, or bearers, of black”, the name given to the partisans of the ʿAbbāsids at the time of the daʿwas of Abū Muslim al-K̲h̲urāsānī and Abū Salama al-K̲h̲allāl [ q.vv.], apparently from the black banners which these rebels against the Umayyads bore, so that they are described in some sources as the aṣḥāb al-rāyāt al-sawdāʾ . The origins of this use of black are obscure and have been much discussed. In the first place, the use of black may have been simply a mark of rebellion, for the anti-Umayyad rebel in K̲h̲urāsān and Transoxania, al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Surayd̲j̲ [ q.v.], act…

, is the title of the early Meccan Sūra cv which deals with God’s judgment on the “men of the Elephant”. This is an allusion to a story which must have been very familiar to the Meccan contemporaries of the Prophet; the background of the allusion is explained by the commentators and historians as follows. The Yemenite king Abraha [ q.v.], bent on a policy of destroying the power of the Meccan sanctuary, led an expedition against Mecca, hoping to destroy the Kaʿba, and the expeditionary troops were supported by an elephant (some versions say, ¶ more than one). But on arriving at the fronti…

, al-Malik al-Ẓāhir Sayf al-Din , Sultan of Egypt, was in his youth enrolled among the Mamlūks of Sulṭān Barḳūḳ. He gradually rose, till under Sulṭān Barsbāy he became Chief ḥād̲j̲ib [ q.v.]. Chief Master of the Horse, and finally Atābeg (Commander-in-Chief). On his deathbed in 842/1438, Barsbāy appointed him regent to his infant son al-Malik al-ʿAzīz Yūsuf. The various divisions of the Mamlūks, originating in the bodyguards of the Sulṭāns Barḳūḳ, Nāṣir Farad̲j̲, Muʾayyad S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ and Barsbāy, were at enmity with one another…

, Zikrīs , a Muslim sect of southern Balūčistān, especially strong amongst the Balūč of Makrān [ q.v.], but also with some representation amongst the Brahūīs of further north. The sect’s name derives from the fact that its adherents exalted the liturgical recitations of formulae including the name and titles of God, sc. d̲h̲ikr [ q.v.], above the formal Muslim worship, the ṣalāt or namāz . The D̲h̲ikrīs were believed by Hughes-Buller to stem from the North Indian heterodox movement of the Mahdawiyya, the followers of Sayyid Muḥammad Mahdī of D̲j̲awnpūr (847-91…

, ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Zibaʿrā b. Ḳays b. ʿAdī b. Saʿd b. Sahm , noted poet of the Ḳurays̲h̲, famous for the terseness of his style (Ibn Ras̲h̲īḳ, ʿUmda , i, 124, 19), who satirized in his hid̲j̲āʾ [ q.v.] the Prophet and his followers. Among his poems preserved by Ibn Isḥāḳ there is one (Ibn His̲h̲ām, 417 f., who justly doubts its authenticity) which refers to the first raid after the hid̲j̲ra . After Badr, where he killed ʿAbd Allāh b. Salama al-ʿAd̲j̲lānī (Wāḳidī [Wellhausen], 139), he lamented the death of the Meccan leaders (Ibn His̲h̲ām, 521 f…

(a.), the sacred well located at the perimeter of the sacred complex of Mecca. It is situated to the east of the Kaʿba [ q.v.] alongside the wall where the “Black Stone”, al-ḥad̲j̲ar al-aswad , is enshrined, a little further from the centre than the maḳām Ibrāhīm [ q.v.], the “station of Abraham”. The well is currently a subterranean arrangement, also opening towards the east. The sacred water is distributed through taps (on earlier architectural features since the beginning of the ʿAbbāsid era, see M. Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Pèlerinage , 77-80, where is found information concerning the ḳub…

(modern pronunciation of the word vocalised by the lexicographers maḥmil or miḥmal ), a type of richly decorated palanquin, perched on a camel and serving in the past to transport people, especially noble ladies, to Mecca (cf. al-Samʿānī, Kitāb al-Ansāb , under the word al-maḥāmilī ). The famous al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲ b. Yūsuf is said to have been the first to use them. In a more restricted and precise sense, the word designates palanquins of this same type which became political symbols and were sent from the 7th/13th century by sovereigns with their caravan…

, the Messiah; in Arabic (where the root m-s-ḥ has the meanings of “to measure” and “to wipe, stroke”) it is a loanword from the Aramaic, where m e s̲h̲īḥā was used as a name of the Redeemer. Horovitz ( Koranische Untersuchungen , 129) considers the possibility that it was taken over from the Ethiopic ( masīḥ ). Muḥammad of course got the word from the Christian Arabs, amongst whom the personal name ʿAbd al-Masīḥ was known in pre-Islamic times, but it is doubtful whether he knew the true meaning of the term (see K. Ahrens, Christliches im Qoran , eine Nachlese , in ZDMG, lxxxiv [1930], 24-5; A. Je…

abu ’l-walīd muḥammad b. ʿabd allāh b. aḥmad , historian of Mecca and of its sanctuary. The ancestor of the family was a Byzantine ( Rūmī ) slave of Kalada or al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Kalada in al-Ṭāʾif, called al-Azraḳ on account of his blue eyes. According to Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr ( Istīʿāb , s.v. Sumayya), he married Sumayya, the mother of Ziyād b. Abīhi. During the siege of al-Ṭāʾif in 8/630 al-Azraḳ went over to Muḥammad, was freed, and settled at Mecca. His descendents rose to power and influence and married into the Umayyad aristocr…

b. ʿAmr b. Nufayl ... b. ʿAdī b. Kaʿb b. Luʾayy, a Companion of the Prophet from the tribe of Ḳurays̲h̲ [ q.v.] and one of Muḥammad’s earliest converts. His mother was Fāṭima bint Baʿd̲j̲a b. Umayya of the clan of K̲h̲uzāʿa. His kunya was Abu ’l-Aʿwar or Abū T̲h̲awr. He was one of ʿUmar b. al-K̲h̲aṭṭāb’s ¶ cousins and at the same time his brother-in-law through his wife, who was ʿUmar’s sister, as well as through ʿUmar’s wife who was his sister. He assumed Islam before Muḥammad entered the house of Zayd b. al-Arḳam and ʿUmar’s conversion is said to ha…

, a people of West Africa. The Wangara identity appears to have been formed in the context of the long distance trade, first of imperial Ghana, and then, in the 13th century, of imperial Mali [ q.v.]. The earliest reference to the Wangara is probably that by Abū ʿUbayd al-Bakrī of Cordova in 460/1067-8, who wrote of the black gold merchants of Yarasna, a Muslim town in lands of unbelievers somewhere in the region of the headwaters of the Niger river. Writing for Roger II of Sicily almost ninety years later, al-Idrīsī referred to t…

, s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Taḳī al-Dīn Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Abī Bakr, a Syrian author of the 6th/12th century and celebrated ascetic and pilgrim who, after a life of travelling, spent his last days at Aleppo, at the court of the Ayyūbid ruler al-Malik al-Ẓāhir G̲h̲āzī [ q.v.]. This ruler held him in high regard and built for him, at the gates of the town, the S̲h̲āfiʿī madrasa in which he taught and which still houses the remains of his tomb. The Arabic sources mention this “wandering ascetic” ( al-zāhid al-sāʾiḥ ) and devote varying biographical notes to him, though without…

, of the Kindī tribe of the Sakūn, a general of the Sufyānids. At Ṣiffīn, he fought in the Umayyad ranks. On the accession of Yazīd I, he was governor of the important district of Ḥimṣ. He then had to intervene with Yazīd for Ibn Mufarrig̲h̲ [ q.v.], who had been imprisoned by ʿUbayd Allāh b. Ziyād. When the expedition against the holy cities of the Ḥid̲j̲āz was planned, Ḥuṣayn was appointed lieutenant of the commanderin-chief Muslim b. ʿUḳba al-Murrī [ q.v.] and, in this capacity, distinguished himself at the battle of the Ḥarra [ q.v.]. During the march on Mecca, the dying Muslim, in or…

(Hebr. S̲h̲ēt̲h̲), Seth the third son of Adam and Eve (Gen. IV, 25-6, V, 3-8), regarded in Islamic lore as one of the first prophets and, like his father, the recipient of a revealed scripture. He is not mentioned in the Ḳurʾān, but plays a considerable role in the subsequent Ḳiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ [ q.v.] literature (see below). He is said to have been born when his father was 130 years of age, five years after the murder ¶ of Abel. When Adam died, he made him his heir and executor of his will. He taught him the hours of the day and of the night, told him of the Flood to come…

, the name of the earliest of the five “Arab” prophets mentioned in the Ḳurʾān (Hūd, Ṣāliḥ, Ibrāhīm, S̲h̲uʿayb and Muḥammad). In his history, which is related three times (on this repetition, see al-Diāḥiẓ, Bayān , ed. Hārūn, i, 105) in slightly different forms (in chronological order: XXVI, 123-40, XI [ Sūra of Hūd ], 52-63/50-60, VII, 63-70/65-72, XLVI, 20/21, merely a restatement), the Ḳurʾān represents him as an ʿĀdī sent to this people [see ʿād ] to exhort them to adore the One God; but, like Muḥammad later in Mecca, he found only incredulity …

ʿAbd Allāh Bey or Efendi (1869-1923), one of the last S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islāms of the Ottoman Empire, known for his fetwā s condemning the Turkish nationalist movement under Muṣṭafā Kemāl (Atatürk). He was born into a wealthy family claiming the title of seyyid , most of whose male members belonged to the ʿilmiyye class, and five of whom had previously served as S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām [see preceding article]. The son of the last there mentioned, ʿAbd Allāh, was Dürrīzāde Meḥmed Efendi, who rose to the rank of Ḳaḍīʿasker of Rumeli, and was the father of the ʿAbd A…

, etymologically “covenant”, “compact”, “friendship” and, by extension, “oath”, the ḥilf being generally confirmed by an oath ( ḳasam , yamīn ). The term is used of three different varieties of institution, all of which originate in the customs of pre-Islamic Arabia. In a primary sense, ḥilf merges with the institution of walāʾ , which consists of the admission of an individual to a clan, by an agreement with one of the members of this clan or by collective assent. This individual, known as mawlā , is generally accorded the same social and juridical positio…

(also Sunfād̲h̲), Zoroastrian supporter of Abū Muslim al-K̲h̲urāsānī [ q.v.] and leader of a rebellion seeking to avenge his death. He originated from a village near Nīs̲h̲āpūr, and is described as a man of wealth and a friend and associate of Abū Muslim. Two months after the murder of the latter by the caliph al-Manṣūr (S̲h̲aʿbān 137/February 755), he rose with the backing of Abū Muslim’s followers and, according to the main historical tradition, seized Nīs̲h̲āpūr. According to another, probably more reliable trad…

, sometimes described as Ibn Ḥamāma, after his mother, was a companionof the Prophet and is best known as his Muʾad̲h̲d̲h̲in . Of Ethiopian (African?) stock, he was born in slavery in Mecca among the clan of Jumaḥ, or in the Sarāt. His mas ter is sometimes given as Umayya b. Ḵh̲alaf [ q.v.] but also as an unnamed man or woman of the same clan. He was an early convert— some sources credit him with having been the second adult after Abū Bakr to accept Islam. Owing to his status he suffered heavy punishment and torture, especially, it is stated, at t…

(or al-Maʿāfir ), the name of a South Arabian tribe, the genealogy of which is given as Yaʿfur b. Mālik b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Murra b. Udad b. Humaysaʿ b. ʿAmr b. Yas̲h̲d̲j̲ib b. ʿArīb b. Zayd b. Kahlān b. Sabaʾ; they are included among the Ḥimyar. The name was also given to the territory which the tribe inhabited and this corresponded roughly with the Turkish ḳaḍāʾ of Taʿizziyya and the present Yemen Arab Republic province ( ḳaḍāʾ) of al-Ḥud̲j̲ariyya (pronounced locally al-Ḥugariyya), itself part of the administrative area ( liwāʾ ) of Taʿizz. In early and mediaeval times it is described as a mik̲h̲…

, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm b. Ismāʿīl al-Dībād̲j̲ b. Ibrāhīm al-G̲h̲amr b. al-Ḥasan al-Mut̲h̲annā , Ḥasanid, d. 1 Rad̲j̲ab 199/15 February 815. The sources generally give the by-name of Ṭabāṭabā to Muḥammad’s grandfather, who owed it to a defect in pronunciation, but the ʿUmdat al-ṭālib calls his father Ibrāhīm by this name and explains it by relating an anecdote according to which Ismāʿīl, ordering a garment for his son, said ṭabā instead of ḳabā . This same text states however that the expression ṭabāṭabā means, in the common language, sayyid al-sādāt …

b. Ḥārit̲h̲a al-Kalbī al-Hās̲h̲imī , Abū muḥammad , son of the Abyssinian freedwoman Baraka Umm Ayman and reckoned among the Prophet’s freedmen, was born in Mecca in the fourth year of Muḥammad’s mission. Tradition records many instances of the Prophet’s fondness for him as a child, and gives him the surname of Ḥibb b. Ḥibb Rasūl Allāh. He joined the fighters on the way to Uḥud [ q.v.], but was sent back before battle on account of his tender age. Questioned by Muḥammad in the case of slander against ʿĀʾis̲h̲a, he spoke in her favour. After K̲h̲aybar he receive…

, a pre-Islamic Arabian deity. The name means “The very powerful” or “The all-powerful”. On its own, in the pre-Islamic period, it always takes the article (Liḥyanite hn-ʿzy , Old Arabic ʾl-ʿzy , Nabataean ʾl-ʿzʾ plus the Aramaic form ʿzyʾ and South Arabian ʿzyn ), but in theophoric personal names, and occasionally in sources of the Islamic period, this is sometimes omitted (e.g. South Thamudic tm-l-ʿzy as against tym-ʿzy , J. Ryckmans, in SI, v [1956], 11). A variety of such compounds occurs in pre-Islamic North Arabian inscriptions, though by the rise of Islam only ʿAbd al-Uzzā …

, a town of the eastern part of the Nile Delta of Egypt, in Antiquity called Tenessos. The medieval town of Tinnīs was situated in the fourth climate of the Muslim geographers, occupying almost all of a small island in the Lake Manzala or the Lake of Tinnīs, at the confluence of the waters of the Tanaitic branch of the Nile with the Mediterranean ones, some 30 miles behind the chain of lagoons. At the time of the Muslim expansion, Tinnīs was governed for the Byzantines by a Christian Arab, one Abū T̲h̲awr, but in 20/641, just after the fall of Damietta, it was conquered by force ( ʿanwatan …

(a.). 1. In pre- and early Islamic usage. The root ṭ -g̲h̲-w yields several forms with the general meaning of "to go beyond the measure, be very lofty, overflow, be tyrannical, rebellious, oppressive, proud, etc.", from which two may be noted here: ṭag̲h̲w , designating a height or mountain summit, and ṭag̲h̲ūt , pl. ṭawāg̲h̲īt , meaning the great pre-Islamic Arabian deities like al-Lāt at Ṭāʾif and al-ʿUzzā at Mecca. The term was then applied to Satan, sorcerer and rebel, and to any power opposed to that of Islam. One may also cite ṭag̲h̲wa "excess of injustice, impiety", as opposed to the s̲h̲…

(P.), a musical ensemble consisting of combinations of double-reed shawms ( zurna ), trumpets ( boru ), double-headed drum ( ṭabl ), kettledrums ( naḳḳāre , kös ) and metallic percussion instruments. The name (P. "greater") apparently denotes "the greater orchestra". Other terms are: Mehterk̲h̲āne, Ṭabl-k̲h̲āne, Ṭabl-u ʿAlem ("drum and standard"), Mehterān-i Ṭabl-u ʿAlem, Ḏj̲emāʿat-i Mehterān, and Ṭabl-i Āl-i ʿOt̲h̲mān ("Drum of the Ottoman House"). The Ottoman mehter was an analogue of the wind, brass and percussion ensembles used for off…

, Banū , a nomadic Arabian tribe of the Ḳuḍāʿa [ q.v.] federation. Its pedigree is: ʿUd̲h̲ra b. Saʿd Hud̲h̲aym b. Zayd b. Layt̲h̲ b. Sūd b. Aslum b. al-Ḥāf b. Ḳuḍāʿa. The ʿUd̲h̲ra were the central group among the descendants of Saʿd Hud̲h̲aym, and they incorporated several brother-clans such as the Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Saʿd Hud̲h̲aym and Salāmān b. Saʿd Hud̲h̲aym. These ʿUd̲h̲ra are not to be confused with the ʿUd̲h̲ra of the Kalb b. Wabara [ q.v.], i.e. ʿUd̲h̲ra b. Zayd Allāt b. Rufayda b. T̲h̲awr b. Kalb. One of the latter ʿUd̲h̲ra was the famous genealogist, Ibn al-Kalbī [see al-kalbī …

, the second Umayyad caliph ( r. 60-4/680-3). He was named as his successor by his father [see muʿāwiya i ]. His mother was Maysūn, a sister of the Kalbī leader Ibn Baḥdal [see Ḥassān b. mālik ]. The Banū Kalb [see kalb b. wabara ] were strong in the southern regions of Syria, and Muʿāwiya appointed Yazīd as his successor in preference to an older half-brother, ʿAbd Allāh, born of a Ḳuras̲h̲ī mother. Yazīd’s kunya , Abū K̲h̲ālid, refers to one of his own younger sons [see k̲h̲ālid b. yazīd ]. During his father’s caliphate, Yazīd commanded expeditions ( ṣawāʾif see Ṣāʾifa . 1…

, the name of two tribal groups in northern Arabia: a branch of Ḵh̲uzāʿa [ q.v.] and a branch of the so-called Northern Arabian federation Ḳays ʿAylān [ q.v.], more precisely, the Hawāzin [ q.v.] 1. The lineage of the Salūl who were a branch of Ḵh̲uzāʿa was: Salūl b. Kaʿb b. ʿAmr b. Rabīʿa b. Ḥārit̲h̲a. The genealogists list, beside Salūl himself, ¶ the following descendants of his as eponyms of tribal groups (the term employed is baṭn ): Ḳumayr b. Ḥabs̲h̲iya (variants: Ḥabs̲h̲iyya, Ḥabas̲h̲iyya, Ḥubs̲h̲iyya), Ḥulayl b. Ḥabs̲h̲iya, including the desce…

, an ancient Arab tribe of obscure origin. Muslim genealogists assuming a Muḍarī origin of K̲h̲uzāʿa based their argument on an utterance attributed to the Prophet according to which the ancestor of the tribe, ʿAmr b. Luḥayy [ q.v.] was a descendant of Ḳamaʿa (= ʿUmayr) b. K̲h̲indif, thus tracing their pedigree to Muḍar (Ibn His̲h̲ām, al-Sīra al-nabawiyya , ed. al-Saḳāʾ, al-Abyārī and S̲h̲alabī, Cairo 1355/1936, i, 78; al-Balād̲h̲urī, Ansāb al-as̲h̲rāf , ed. Muḥammad Ḥamīdullāh, Cairo 1959, i, 34; al-Fāsī, S̲h̲ifāʾ al-g̲h̲arām bi-ak̲h̲bār al-balad al-ḥarām …

(the wool-carder), Abu ’l-Mug̲h̲īt̲h̲ al-Ḥusayn b. Manṣūr b. Maḥammā al-Bayḍāwī , Arabic-speaking mystic theologian (244-309/857-922). His life, his teaching and his death throw light on a crucial period in the history of Muslim culture, and the interior experience which he describes can be considered a turning point in the history of taṣawwuf . (This article includes, as well as the article of EI 1, some extensive additions drawn from the later works of L. Massignon). I.—Biographical details Origins. Al-Ḥallād̲j̲ was born in about 244/857-8 at Ṭūr,…

, the direction of Mecca (or, to be exact, of the Kaʿba or the point between the mīzāb or water-spout and the western corner of it), towards which the worshipper must direct himself for prayer, j i.—Ritual and Legal Aspects From very early times the direction at prayer and divine service for the worshippers was not a matter of choice among the Semitic peoples. There is already an allusion to this in I Kings, viii, 44 and it is recorded of Daniel (Dan., vi, 11) that he offered prayer three times a day in the direction of Jerusalem (which has remained the Jewish ḳibla to this …

(a.), pilgrimage to Mecca, ʿArafāt and Minā, the fifth of the five “pillars” ( arkān ) of Islam. It is also called the Great Pilgrimage in contrast to the ʿumra [ q.v.] or Little Pilgrimage. Its annual observance has had, and continues to have, a profound influence on the Muslim world. Those not taking part follow the pilgrims in thought; the religious teachers, and nowadays the press, radio and television help them in this by providing doctrine and news bulletins. For the Muslim community itself this event is the occasion fo…

, Aḥmad b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Muḥammad b. Abī Bakr Muḥibb al-Dīn Abū Ḏj̲aʿfar and Abu ’l-ʿAbbās, S̲h̲āfiʿī traditionist and jurist, b. 27 Ḏj̲umādā II 615/20 September 1218, d. 2 Ḏj̲umādā II 694/19 April 1295. Considered as the greatest scholar of his century in the Ḥid̲j̲āz, he was born into a family who had recently settled in Mecca and who were destined to become one of the most important buyūtāt . His great grandfather, Abū Bakr, had emigrated from Ṭabaristān to the Holy City in the seventies of the 6th/12th century. There he married and had se…

(a., pl. umam ), in its meaning of "people, community", is possibly derived from Hebr. ummā or ¶ Aram, umetha (Horovitz, 190), and ultimately from Akkad. ummatu (Jeffery, 69). Additional meanings (from Ar. amma , drawn principally from Lane) are: a mode of acting (cf. sunna ); a morally exemplary person; tallness, beauty, and justice of stature of a person. In the Ḳurʾān, umma usually refers to communities sharing a common religion, whereas in later history it almost always means the Muslim community as a whole while admitting of regio…

, the father of mankind (Abu’l-Bas̲h̲ar). In the Ḳurʾān it is related that when God had ¶ created what is on the earth and in the heavens he said to the angels: "I am about to place a substitute ( k̲h̲alīfa ) on earth", and they said: "Wilt thou place thereon one who will do evil therein and shed blood, whereas we celebrate thy praise and sanctify thee?" Then God taught Adam the names of all things, and as the angels did not know the names Adam taught them these (ii, 28-33 Fl.). Thereafter God ordered the angels t…