, one of the main branches of the K̲h̲ārid̲j̲īs [ q.v.], representatives of which are today found in ʿUmān, East Africa, Tripolitania (D̲j̲abal Nafūsa and Zuag̲h̲a) and southern Algeria (Wargla and Mzab). The sect takes it name from that of one of those said to have founded it, ʿAbd Allāh b. Ibāḍ al-Murrī al-Tamīmī. The form usually employed is Abāḍiyya; this is true not only of North Africa ( e.g., in the D̲j̲abal Natūsa, cf. A. de C. Motylinski, Le Djebel Nefousa , Paris 1898-9, 41 and passim ), where it is attested in the 9th/15th century by the Ibāḍī writer al-Barrādī ( Kitāb Ḏj̲awāhir al-mun…

[see al-ibāḍiyya ] .

, Abu Sufyān , Ibāḍī theologian and historian, originally from the Arabic tribe of the Banū ʿAbd al-Ḳays, who lived in the 2nd/8th century and who is cited in the Kitāb Ṭabaḳāt al-mas̲h̲āyik̲h̲ of al-Dard̲j̲īnī (d. 670/1227 [ q.v.]) amongst the scholars of the fourth ṭabaḳa or class. His family came originally from ʿIrāḳ (his grandfather al-Malīḥ al-ʿAbdī was one of the close friends of the head of the Ibāḍī community in Baṣra, the famous Abu ʿUbayda Muslim b. Abī Karīma al-Tamīmī [see al-ibāḍiyya ]), and he first lived in ʿUmān. Then he settled in Baṣra, …

, Abu ’l-s̲h̲aʿthāʾ al-azdī al-ʿumānī al-yaḥmidī al-d̲j̲awfī (al-D̲j̲awf in Baṣra) al-baṣrī , a famous traditionist, ḥāfiẓ and jurist, of the Ibāḍī sect. He was born in 21/642 in Nazwā (in ʿUmān), and, according to tradition, became head of the Ibāḍī community of Baṣra upon the death of ʿAbd Allāh b. Ibāḍ [ q.v.]. He carried on the latter’s policy of maintaining friendly relations with the Umayyads, and kept on good terms with the ruthless persecutor of the Azāriḳa, al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲, through whom he even succeeded in obtaining regular payments …

, Abū Sahl al-Fārisī , Ibāḍī scholar of the Rustamid family, who lived in Tāhert [ q.v.] in the 3rd/8th century. Some say that he was one of those who by their learning and religious zeal helped to make that town famous. He was a complete master of Berber, and served as interpreter under the imām Aflaḥ b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (on whom see Sezgin, GAS, ¶ i, 586) in the first half of the 3rd/8th century or even till 258/871-2, and under Abū Ḥātim Yūsuf b. Muḥammad who, with a short interruption, was imām 281-94/894-907. This shows that the Rustamid princes of Tāhert spoke Arabic, as was to be e…

(a.), verbal noun of me root s̲h̲-r-y , a technical term of early Islamic religion and, more generally, of Islamic commercial practice and law. The word appears to be one of the aḍdād [ q.v.], words with opposing meanings, in this case, buying and selling; the basic meaning must be to exchange or barter goods. Early theological usage was based on such Ḳurʾānic texts as II, 203/207, “Amongst the people is the one who sells ( yas̲h̲rī ) himself, desiring God’s approval (or: to satisfy God)”; II, 15/16, “These are those who have purchased ( is̲h̲taraw ) error for right g…

, sulaymān , contemporary Tripolitanian Ibāḍī scholar and politician, who inspired the Arabs of his country in their struggle against Italy. He belonged to an old and influential Berber family of the D̲j̲abal Nafūsa (with branches at D̲j̲ādo, Kābaō and Ḏj̲erba, where there is a private bārūniyya library) and was the son of ʿAbd Allāh al-Bārūnī, the theologian, jurist and poet, who taught at the zāwiya of al-Bak̲h̲ābk̲h̲a, near Yefren. Sulaymān was suspected by the Ottoman government ¶ of nurturing separatist ideas and plotting the founding of an Ibāḍite imāmate. Proceedi…

, “Seeker of the Truth”, the title given to the Ibāḍī K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ite leader ʿAbd Allāh b. Yaḥyā , d. end of 130-beginning of 131/August-September 748. According to the chronicler al-S̲h̲ammāk̲h̲ī (d. 928/1522), the full name of this leader from the Banū S̲h̲ayṭān of Kinda was Abū Yaḥyā ʿAbd Allāh b. Yaḥyā b. ʿUmar b. al-Aswad b. ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Muʿāwiya b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ al-Kindī ( Siyar , 98). He adopted the title of “Seeker of the Truth” at the beginning of the year 129/746 on receiving the oath of allegiance as Imām of the Ibāḍī community of ¶ Ḥaḍramawt and…

, in Berber Infūsen , name of a Berber tribe. According to the common genealogical scheme (cf. Ibn K̲h̲aldūn, Kitāb al-ʿIbar , i, 107-17), the Nafūsa are one of the four branches of the large body of the Butr, whose name derives from their chief Mādg̲h̲īs al-Abtar. At present, the dwelling place of the Nafūsa is south-west of Tripoli in Libya, on the plateau of the same name [see al-nafūsa , d̲j̲abal ] which from the frontier between Tunisia and Tripolitania tends eastward, and, if taken in the ¶ largest sense, comprises the regions of Nālūt, Fassāṭo and Yefren. The inhabitants of …

or rustumids, an Ibāḍī dynasty, of Persian origin, which reigned from Tāhart (in what is now Algeria) 161-296/778-909. The birth of the Ibāḍī principality of Tāhart is bound up with the great Berber rising begun by Maysara (called, as a tribute from his enemies, al-Ḥaḳīr “The Vile”) in 122/740. As a result of this rising, the greater part of the Mag̲h̲rib fell away definitively from the control of the caliphate in the East, with the exception of the principality of Ḳayrawān (Kairouan), which only achieved virtual independence with the coming of the Ag̲h̲labids [ q.v.] in 184/800. The Ibā…

, abū bakr ʿabd al-raḥmān b. kaysān , died 200/816 or 201/817, early theologian and mufassir , commonly counted among the Muʿtazilīs, although always treated as an outsider by the Muʿtazilī ṭabaḳāt . In his youth he served, together with other mutakallimūn like Muʿammar, Ḥafṣ al-Fard and Abū S̲h̲amir al-Ḥanafī, as adlatus ( g̲h̲ulām ) to Maʿmar Abu ’l-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲, a Baṣran physician with certain “philosophical” leanings (cf. Fihrist, ed. Flügel, 100, 11. 28 ff). In the later days of Ḍirār b. ʿAmr [ q.v.], i.e. in the last quarter of the 2nd century A.H., he created in Baṣra a …

, an early Islamic religious group defined by the heresiographers as the name of a K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ite sect arising out of the breakup of the K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ite community in Baṣra in the year 64/683-4. The heresiographers commonly derive the name from a founder variously called ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Aṣfar, ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Ṣaffar al-Saʿdī al-Tamīmī, or Ziyād b. al-Aṣfar, who was active at the time of the breakup. This founder is almost certainly fictitious. The scholars of the Ṣufriyya themselves, according to al-Mubarrad, narrated that the…

(a.), pl. of ṭabaḳa, “everything which is related to another and which is similar or analagous to it, which comes to mean a layer of things of the same sort (Flügel, Classen , 269, n. 1). From this a transition can be made to the idea of a “rank, attributed to a group of characters who have played a role in history in one capacity or another, classed according to criteria determined by the religious, cultural, scientific or artistic order etc.” (Hafsi, i. 229; cf. al-Tahānawī, Kas̲h̲s̲h̲āf , 917), In biographical literature it is the “book of classes” of char…

(literally “circle”, “gathering of people seated in a circle”, and also “gathering of students around a teacher”), among the Ibāḍī-Wahbīs of the Mzāb [ q.v.] a religious council made up of twelve ʿazzāba (“recluses”, “clerks”; on the exact meaning of this word, see R. Rubinacci, Un antico documento di vita cenobitica musulmana, 47-8), and presided over by a s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ . On the mystical sense of ḥalḳa , the Ḳawāʿid al-Islām of al-Ḏj̲ayṭālī [ q.v.], which is the most complete code of the Ibāḍī sect (written probably in the first half of the 8th/14th century), says: “On…

, a region of the northeastern part of the Mag̲h̲rib. In mediaeval Islamic times it comprised essentially the province of Ifrīḳiya [ q.v.]. Under the Ottomans, the Regency of Tunis was formed in the late 10th/16th century, continuing under local Beys with substantial independence from Istanbul until the establishment of the French Protectorate in 1881, which in turn gave way in 1957 to the present fully independent Tunisian Republic. I. Geography, Demography and Economy . (a) Geography. Tunisia, situated between 6° and 9° degrees of longitude east, and between 32° and 37…

[see ibāḍiyya ].

or Abʿādiyya (pl. abāʿid ) was the term used in 19th century Egypt for land surveyed in 1813 under Muḥammad ʿAlī, but not included in the cadaster and not taxed because it was uncultivated. These lands extended over an area of 0.75 to 1.0 million feddān s (a feddān amounted, at the end of Muḥammad ʿAlī’s rule, to 4,416.5 square metres). To increase the country’s wealth he made free grants of ibʿādiyya to high officials and notables, exempting them from taxes on condition that they improved the land and prepared it for cultivation. The first re…

, a place in Algeria, founded in 296/908 at 8 km/5 miles to the south-west of Ward̲j̲ilān (Ouargla) in the territory of the confederation of ḳṣūr of the Isedrāten, by the last Rustamid Imām, after the destruction of the principality of Tāhart [ q.v.] by the Fāṭimids. Its fame is linked with the history of the Ibāḍī communities of the Mag̲h̲rib. An Ibādī scholar, Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf b. Ibrāhīm al-Sadrātī al-Ward̲j̲ilānī (d. 570/1174-5) compiled there the musnad of al-Rabīʿ b. Ḥabīb, based essentially on the tradition of Abū ʿUbayda (ed. Masḳaṭ 1325/1908 under the title of al-D̲j̲āmiʿ al-ṣaḥīḥ …

, a tribe which has played an important role in the history of the Ibāḍiyya [ q.v.] in ʿUmān. Descendants of Yaḥmad, a branch of al-Azd [ q.v.], members of the tribe migrated to ʿUmān in pre-Islamic times and established themselves in a valley which came to bear their name. Wādī Banī K̲h̲arūṣ runs down from the heights of the western mountain range of al-Ḥad̲j̲ar to join Wādī al-Farʿ before debouching on the plain of al-Bāṭina and then ¶ into the Gulf of ʿUmān. On the right bank not far below the juncture of the two valleys is the famous Ibāḍī stronghold of al-Rustāḳ [ q.v.]. Yaḥmad provided most of…

( Ḥabsī ), a tribe, for the most part settled, of al-S̲h̲arḳiyya district in ʿUmān, southeastern Arabia. Al-Ḥubūs belong to the Hināwī ¶ political faction (see hinā , banū ) of ʿUmān, and members of the tribe are adherents of the Ibāḍiyya [ q.v.]. They, together with al-Ḥirt̲h̲ and al-Had̲j̲ariyyūn, formed the tribal block upon which the Imāmate relied in al-S̲h̲arḳīyya until the events of 1377/1957 [see ʿumān ]. Al-Ḥubūs are settled in a group of villages, known collectively as Balādīn al-Ḥubūs, in upper Wādī ʿAndām. Their tribal capital is Muḍaybī, which since …

, eminent Ibāḍī lawyer of the end of the 2nd/8th and the beginning of the 3rd/9th century, a native of Ḵh̲urāsān. On his way to the Rustamid imām ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (168-208/784-823) at Tāhart, to offer him his book al-Mudawwana , he stayed with the Ibāḍī s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ , Abū Ḥafṣ ʿAmrūs b. Fatḥ, of Ḏj̲abal Nafūsa, who rendered a service to Ibāḍī literature by conserving in the Mag̲h̲rib a copy of the work. The Mudawwana of Abū G̲h̲ānim is the oldest Ibāḍī treatise on general jurisprudence, according to the teaching of Abū ʿUbayda Muslim al-Tamīmī (d. under al-Manṣūr, 136-58/754-75; cf. ibāḍiyya …

al-Ḥimyarī al-Yamanī , the first imām elected by the Ibāḍīs of the Mag̲h̲rib. He was one of the five missionaries ( ḥamalat al-ʿilm , "carriers of science") sent to the Mag̲h̲rib by Abū ʿUbayda al-Tamīmī of Baṣra, the spiritual head of the sect, in order to preach there the Ibāḍī creed [cf. ibāḍiyya ]. These missionaries received from Abū ʿUbayda the order to establish an imamate amongst the Ibāḍiyya of Tripolitania, with Abu ’l-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb ¶ as imām. The activities of the ḥamalat al-ʿilm were crowned with success. In 140/757-8 the Ibāḍī notables of Tripolitania, in a council he…

b. muḥ. b. ʿalī b. al-ʿarīḍ b. ḏj̲aʿfar al-ṣādiḳ (the great-grand-son of ʿAlī), called al-Muhād̲j̲ir "the Emigrant", saint and legendary ancestor of the Ḥaḍramī sayyids . He left Baṣra in 317/929 accompanied by Muḥammad b. Sulaymān (alleged ancestor of the Banū Ahdal [ q.v.]) and Sālim b. ʿAbdallāh (ancestor of Banū Ḳudaym), was prevented from visiting Mecca until next year by Abū Ṭāhir al-Ḳarmaṭī’s occupation and settled with his companions in Western Yaman (region of Surdud and Sahām). In 340/951 he left with his son ʿUbayd Allāh for Ḥ…

, the name of two Ibāḍī [see ibāḍiyya ] scholars and jurisconsults from the D̲j̲abal Nafūsa [ q.v.] in Tripolitania. 1. Abū ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Abī ʿUt̲h̲mān Saʿīd b. ʿAbd al-Wāḥid, especially famed as a biographer, died in D̲j̲umādā 928/April-May 1522 in one of the villages of the oasis of the Ifren of the D̲j̲abal Nafūsa, in Tripolitania. Among his pupils was Abū Yaḥyā Zakariyyāʾ b. Ibrāhīm al-Hawwārī. He was the author of the following works: 1. A commentary on the ʿAḳīda , a short treatise on theology by Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar b. D̲j̲amīʿ al-Nafūsī; 2. A commentary on his synopsis of the K. al-ʿAdl wa…

, sub-sect ( firḳa ) of the K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ī sect of the Ibāḍiyya [ q.v.] This sub-sect, whose oiigins were purely political, was founded in what is now Tripolitania around the beginning of the 3rd/9th century by K̲h̲alaf b. al-Samḥ, grandson of the Ibāḍī imām Abu ’l-K̲h̲aṭṭāb ʿAbd al-Aʿlā al-Maʿāfirī al-Yamānī [ q.v.]. Al-Samḥ b. ʿAbd al-Aʿlā, K̲h̲alaf’s father, was originally the vizier of the Rustamid imām ʿAbd al-Wahhāb b. ʿAbd al-Raljmān [ q.v.], who held him in high esteem, and then after ca. 196/811-12, he was governor of Tripolitania ( ḥayyiz Aṭrābulus ) on behalf of this imām. The new …

, Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh b. Muḥammad b. Nāṣir b. Miyāl b. Yūsuf , noted Ibāḍī-Wahbī historian, traditionist and biographer. He was descended from Yūsuf al-Lawātī, the vizier of al-Aflah b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, the third Ibāḍī imām of the Rustamid dynasty (208-50/823-71). According to the biographical notices about him given in the works of al-Dardiīnī and al-S̲h̲ammāk̲h̲ī, he was born in the first half of the 5th/11th century in the province of Barḳa (Cyrenaica). His nisba indicates that he was from the Berber tribe of the Lawāta [ q.v.], of which several sections were adherents of the…

( al-Nakkāra , al-Nakkāriyya ) “deniers”: one of the main branches of the K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ī sect of the Ibāḍiyya [ q.v.]. The existence of this sect has already been proved by E. Masqueray, A. de C. Motylinski and R. Strothmann; cf., however, the opinion of G. Levi della Vida, according to whom al-Nukkār is simply “an insulting epithet applied to K̲h̲ārid̲j̲īs in general” [see Ṣufriyya ]. The name al-Nukkār comes from the fact that the members of this sect refused to recognise the second Ibāḍī imām of Tāhert, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Rustam [see rustamids ]. The…

, abū ’l-faḍl abū ’l-ḥāsīm b. ibrāhīm , a North African Ibāḍī scholar, who lived in the second half of the 8th/14th century. He was a native of Dammar in Southern Tunisia, where he studied under Abu ’l-Baḳāʾ Yaʿīs̲h̲ al-Ḏj̲arbī. Thence he moved on to Yefren, in the D̲j̲ebel Nefūsa, to attend the classes given by S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abū ¶ Sākin ʿĀmir al-S̲h̲ammāk̲h̲ī (died in 792/1390). On completing his studies, he settled in D̲j̲erba, where for several years he devoted his energies to teaching, holding his classes in the Wādī al-Zabīb mos…

, the nisba of many spiritual s̲h̲ayk̲h̲s of the Ibāḍiyya [ q.v.] referring to the Tanāwut, a Berber tribe of the Nafzāwa country in southern Tunisia and Wargla (Wārd̲j̲alān). To the 5th/11th century belongs: 1). Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf b. Muḥammad al-Tanāwutī, who often appears in later tradition. His son 2). Ismāʿīl, but still more his grandson 3). Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf b. Ismāʿīl, had the reputation of being very devout and miraculously gifted. The most important bearer of the name is the last-named’s son: 4). Abū ʿAmmār ʿAbd al-Kāfī al-Tanāwutī, fellow-pupil and friend of Abū Yaʿḳūb Y…

(or Tīhart , Tāhert ) known as al-Ḥadīt̲h̲a (the New), as opposed to al-Ḳadīma (the Old), situated 9 km/5 miles to the north-east, becoming Tagdemt in Berber, the ancient Tingartia, a town of Algeria, founded by the Rustamids [ q.v.]—according to a custom frequent in the mediaeval Muslim world—and capital of their kingdom. In Berber, Tāhart is said to signify "lioness" or "tambourine" ( daff ), taking the word in its first signification a reference to its location: a wooded plateau formerly inhabited by wild beasts which had, mysteriousl…

, the mediaeval Islamic capital of the Fazzān [ q.v.], today south-western Libya (lat. 26° 11’ N., long. 15° 06’ E.). Zawīla (Zuwayla) was established probably in the early 2nd/8th century. It did not yet exist in 46/666-7 when the Arab conqueror ʿUḳba b. Nāfiʿ [ q.v.] passed by the site, but had a century later become the centre of the region. It was then dominated by Hawwāra Berbers, predominantly Ibāḍīs. After he had crushed the first Ibāḍī state in Tripolitania, the ʿAbbāsid general Muḥammad b. al-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲ al-K̲h̲uzāʿī sent a force to Zawīla. It fell in 145/…

, D̲j̲abal , a steep mountain range to the west of Mawṣil, rising to 1,463 m/4,798 feet in height, in the desert zone between the Tigris and K̲h̲ābūr rivers. At the present time, it lies mainly in ʿIrāḳ, but has its western slopes in Syria. There are only a few valleys with vegetation and timber; some wādīs of the southern slopes are affluents of the Nahr al-T̲h̲art̲h̲ār, and irrigated agriculture (in mediaeval Islamic times, with figs, date palms and mulberry trees for a flo…

(also Tadmakkat, Tādmakka, Tādimakka, and Tādmāk, in Arabic transcription; Tadmǎkkǎt in modern Tǎmas̲h̲ǎk), name of a mediaeval urban crossroads between Black Africa and North Africa and al-Andalus. According to Ibn Ḥawḳal (i, 84, 105), the Tādmakkat area was ruled by Muslim Berbers of the Banū Tānmāk. Yāḳūt (ii, 938), probably borrowing from the lost work of al-Muhallabī (d. 380/990), mentions “Zakrām” (possibly a textual corruption of *Akrām, from the Berber ag̲h̲rem “settlement”) as the capital of the “kingdom of Tādm…

(a.), literally, “sound, healthy”. 1. As a technical term in the science of ḥadīt̲h̲ [ q.v.], i.e. Muslim tradition. It did not come into use immediately with the onset of isnād criticism, for al-Rāmahurmuzī (d. 360/970 [ q.v.]), who wrote the first systematic work on ḥadīt̲h̲, does not seem to have applied it yet. It is used by mediaeval as well as modern Muslim tradition experts (sometimes followed in this by some western scholars) to describe or qualify one particular prophetic tradition or a whole collection of such traditions. Ṣaḥīḥ traditions constitute o…

( al-K̲h̲awārid̲j̲ , sing. K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ī ), the members of the earliest of the religious sects of Islam, whose importance lies particularly, from the point of view of the development of dogma, in the formulation of questions relative to the theory of the caliphate and to justification by faith or by works, while from the point of view of political history the principal part they played was disturbing by means of continual insurrections, which often ended in the temporary conquest…

, the name of three fortified places, whose first mentions go back to Antiquity, and of a mountain, all in Southwest Arabia. They have been distinguished, from the times of Hamdānī and Yāḳūt onwards, by suffixing the name of a neighbouring settlement or the local region. 1. S̲h̲ibām Ḥaḍramawt, in lower Ḥaḍramawt, in the wadi of the same name, famed for its lofty houses in sun-dried brick, warranting its designation as a UNESCO site of world significance. In South Arabian inscriptions, it appears as S 2 bm from the end of the 3rd century A.D. and in the 4th century, the time of th…

, K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ite sub-sect which was especially widespread in Baḥrayn and Yamāma. The name derives from that of its founder Nad̲j̲da b. ʿĀmir al-Ḥanafī al-Ḥarūrī. It is known of him that he rebelled in Yamāma at the time of al-Ḥusayn’s death in battle (61/680) and that in 64/683 he gave military help to ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Zubayr when he was besieged in Mecca by the Syrian army. Once the siege was raised, Nad̲j̲da, in company with other K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ite chiefs, including Nāfiʿ b. al-Azraḳ and ʿAbd Allāh b. Ibāḍ,…

, a town of inner ʿUmān. It lies in an oasis on the eastern side of the D̲j̲abal Ak̲h̲ḍār in central ʿUmān. It is divided between a walled lower town ( Nizwat al-Sufāla ) and an upper walled town ( Nizwat al-ʿAlāya or Samad al-Kindī ), which are situated on either side of the Wādī Kalbu. The water supply of ʿAlāya is provided by the Falad̲j̲ , Dāris and that of Sufala is provided by the Falad̲j̲ G̲h̲unduḳ . Sprenger suggested that Ptolemy’s Ravana/Rabana/Rouana basileion should be identified with either Nizwa or Rustāk, but this remains unproven. At the onset of Islam, Nizwa ap…

The opportunity is taken of prefixing to the main body of the article, on Ḥaḍrarnawt in the Islamic period, some important recent items of information on the region in the pre-Islamic time. i. Pre-Islamic Period In 1974 a French archaeological mission under the direction of J. Pirenne began work at S̲h̲abwa, which is still continuing. The most significant result has been the tracing of a very extensive town site to the northeast of the rectangular sacral enclosure which the earliest visitors had noted; included in this are some i…

, early theologian and ascetic who died in 131/748-9, shortly before the final success ¶ of the ʿAbbāsid revolution, probably as a victim of the plague which raged at Baṣra during the same year. Further information about him is scarce and not always beyond suspicion. In a polemical letter of unknown origin addressed to ʿAmr b. ʿUbayd [ q.v.], Wāṣil is supposed to have been present, as a rather prominent disciple, at one of the courses given by al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī [ q.v.] during a visit to Medina some time before 110/728. Whether at that moment he lived in the Ḥid̲j̲āz or had i…

, a branch of the S̲h̲īʿa [ q.v.] arising out of the abortive revolt of Zayd b. ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn [ q.v.] in Kūfa in 122/740. During the preparations for the revolt, a part of the Kūfan S̲h̲īʿa withdrew their support from Zayd in protest against his refusal to condemn unconditionally the early caliphs preceding ʿAlī and backed Zayd’s nephew D̲j̲aʿfar al-Ṣādiḳ as their imām . This schism led to a lasting division of the S̲h̲īʿa into a radical and a moderate wing in terms of their religious break with the Sunnī Muslim community. The Zaydiy…

, a tribe belonging to the group which the genealogists distinguished under the name of the Butr [ q.v.] and which formed one of the two great Berber peoples, the other being the Barānis [ q.v.]. They seem to have become fixed fairly early in Libya and to have spread over all the Mag̲h̲rib, where the elements which are encountered there sporadically were largely sedentaries or sedentarised. Mediaeval authors mention Nafzāwa as far as Sid̲j̲ilmāsa and even as far as Awdag̲h̲ost [ q.vv.], but this tribe is known above all today for having given its name to a region of Tunisia t…

(or Tamīm bt. Murr, when the tribe or ḳabīla is referred to), a very large “Northern” tribe which before Islam and in its early days lived in central and eastern Arabia. Its nasab is: Tamīm b. Murr b. Udd b. Ṭābik̲h̲a b. Ilyās b. Muḍar b. Nizār b. Maʿadd b. ʿAdnān. 1. Source material. The literary output about the Tamīm in the form of monographs is now lost. For example, Abu ’l-Yaḳẓān (d. 190/806), a mawlā of the Tamīm, compiled a monograph Ak̲h̲bār Tamīm , and also a K. Ḥilf Tamīm baʿḍihā baʿḍan ; Ibn al-Kalbī wrote K. ʿAdī b. Zayd [ q.v.] al-ʿIbādī and Ḥilf Kalb wa-Tamīm ; and Abū ʿUbayda [ q.v.] compile…

, the imāmate in the meaning of “supreme leadership” of the Muslim community after the death of the Prophet. The present article will deal with the theological and judicial theory. For the institutional development see k̲h̲ilāfa . Early development. The establishment of Abū Bakr after the death of Muḥammad as K̲h̲alīfat Rasūl Allāh , “Vicar of the Messenger of God”, affirmed the continued unity of the Muslim community under a single leader. It favoured a preferential right to the imāmate for the early Meccan, Ḳurays̲h̲ite Com…

(a.), “questions and answers”, a technique of argumentation in mediaeval Islam. The pattern of question ( suʾāl , pl. suʾālāt , asʾila ) and answer ( d̲j̲awāb , pl. d̲j̲awābāt , ad̲j̲wiba ) has strongly influenced, both in form and content, numerous Arabic writings in virtually all fields of knowledge. Unsolved problems, or questions and objections propounded by a third person, are followed by answers or explanations and refutations. Sometimes the author, at the request of a third person, composed a monog…

, a Muslim dynasty which throughout the 3rd/9th century held Ifrīḳiya in the name of the ʿAbbāsids and reigned at al-Ḳayrawān. (i) general survey. In 184/800 the founder of this dynasty, Ibrāhīm b. al-Ag̲h̲lab, who, as governor of the Zāb, had displayed skill and energy in restoring law and order in his province, was invested with princely power by the caliph Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd on terms advantageous to the latter. His vassal relinquished the subvention hitherto paid to Ifrīḳiya and undertook to pay a tribute of 40,000 dinars to the imperial treasury. The ties which linked the Ag̲h̲labid amīr…

iii. Social structure. ʿUmān is overwhelmingly an Arab, Muslim society, and tribal organisation remains an important element in national identity. The country’s rapid development since 1970 has introduced a measure of physical and social mobility, as well as creating an influx of emigrants. The migration of Arab tribes into ʿUmān predates Islam, with Kahtānī or South Arabian tribes moving ¶ along the southern Arabian Peninsula from Yemen into ʿUman around the 2nd century A.D. They were followed several centuries later by ʿAdnānī or North Arabian tribes …

( al-Ag̲h̲wāṭ ), Algerian town and oasis, administrative centre of a wilāya (district), 420 km. to the south of Algiers (long. 0° 30′ E. [Paris], lat. 33° 48′ N. Altitude: 787 m.). It was formerly the administrative centre of one of the four “Territories of the South” forming the region of Algeria administered under martial law, until the reform instituted by the law of 20 September 1947 ( Statut de l’Algérie ). On account of its geographical position, dominating the defence of the Sahara, as well as memories connected with the dramatic story …

(a.), creed; but sometimes also doctrine, dogma or article of faith; and hence ʿaḳāʾid (pl.), articles of faith, is also used for "creed". 1. The Development and Use of the Form. The documents to which the terms ʿaḳīda or ʿaḳāʾid are applied vary in length, and the longer ones cannot be sharply divided from the comprehensive theological treatises (e.g. al-ʿAḳīda al-Niẓāmiyya by al-Ḏj̲uwaynī). The terms, however, may usefully be taken to signify compositions where the chief interest is in the formulation of doctrine or dogma, and not…

, conventionally Oman, a sultanate situated in the south-eastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula, with a second area, separated from the first by parts of the United Arab Emirates, at the tip of the Musandam peninsula. The country, with a population of some 2,000,000 inhabitants, occupies some 312,000 km2 in all, and has a coastline along the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean of about 1,700 km/1,060 miles in length. The head of state is Sultan Ḳābūs b. Saʿīd, the fourteenth ruler of the Āl Bū Saʿīd dynasty [ q.v.]. The country is divided ethnically and culturally into two: the Ibāḍī …

, a neo-orthodox brand of Islamic reformism, originating in the late 19th century and centred on Egypt, aiming to regenerate Islam by a return to the tradition represented by the “pious forefathers” ( al-salaf al-ṣāliḥ, hence its name) of the Primitive Faith. For definition, background, origins, doctrines and general aspects see iṣlāḥ ; muḥammad ʿabduh ; ras̲h̲id riḍā . 1. In North Africa. (a) Tunisia. Tunisia was the first Mag̲h̲rib country to receive a reformist (though not purely salafī ) message from the East. Muḥammad ʿAbduh visited Tunis (Decemb…

, a mediaeval and modern town in ʿ Uni an conventionally Sohar (lat. 24° 23′ N., long. 56° 45′ E.). It is situated in the middle of the flat and sandy bay which is found on the coast of Arabia between Masḳaṭ in the south-east and the peninsula of Musandam in the north-east. The site is of no particular use as a harbour, even though it has a broad opening on to the Gulf of ʿUmān. But the reasons for the development of the region are the long, fertile and well-irrigated coastal plain of the Bāṭina behind the site of …

(The Republic of Niger, La République du Niger, Ḏj̲umhūriyyat al-Nayd̲j̲ar), a modern state of West Africa, formerly the French colony of that name. The Niger Republic is, to quote Djibo Mallam Hamani (though specifically of the Ayar Massif, which fills the north of it), a “carrefour du Soudan et de la Berbérie”. Its geographical position on the map, and the multi-ethnic character of its societies, has had a profound effect on the Islamic life of the Nigériens throughout their history. 1. Geography and peoples The Niger Republic covers an area of some 1,267,000 km2. However, 800,000 of …

(a., pl. of s̲h̲āwī ) “sheep-breeder or herder”, a term applied to groups in various parts of the Arab world. 1. The Mag̲h̲rib. Here the term, originally applied in contempt, has become the general designation of several groups, of which the most important are, in Morocco, the S̲h̲āwiya of Tāmasnā and in Algeria, the S̲h̲āwiya of the Awrās. E. Doutté ( Marrâkech , 4-5) mentions several other groups of less importance. An endeavour has also been made to connect Shoa, the name of a district in Abyssinia, with S̲h̲āwiya. Wherever it is found, the term is applied to Berbers of the Zanāt…

(usually Medina in English, Médine in French), residence of the Prophet Muḥammad after the ḥid̲j̲ra and one of the sacred cities of Islam. Medina is situated in the Ḥid̲j̲āz province of Saʿūdī Arabia in latitude 24° 28′ N, longitude 39° 36′ E, about 160 km. from the Red Sea and about 350 km. north of Mecca. It has developed from an oasis on relatively level ground between the hill of Uḥud on the north and that of ʿAyr on the south. East and west are lava flows (in Arabic ḥarra [ q.v.] or lāba ). There are several wādī s or watercourses which cross the oasis from south to…

, “the Island of the Arabs”, the name given by the Arabs to the Arabian Peninsula. ¶ (i) preliminary remarks Although the Peninsula may not be the original cradle of the Arab people,, they have lived there for thousands of years and regard it in a very special sense as their homeland. For students of Islam, Western Arabia occupies a unique position as the land in which the Prophet Muḥammad was born, lived, and died. It was there that the inspiration of Allāh descended upon the Prophet, and to this Holy Land come ma…

, an Arabic form based on the Italian Libia, which in turn derives from the ancient Greek Λιβύη/Λυβύα. 1. The name. The name first appears in ancient Egyptian writings in the form RBW or LBW, perhaps representing Lebu or Libu. It was also known to the ancient Israelites and occurs several times in the later books of the Old Testament in the form Lubim. ¶ The Lehabim of Genesis, x, 13 may possibly represent the same name. The term passed into later and modern usage through the Greeks and subsequenly the Romans. In Greek geographical writ…

(a.), reform, reformism. i.—The Arab world In modern Arabic, the term iṣlāḥ is used for “reform” (cf.: RALA, xxi (1386/1966), 351, no. 15) in the general sense: in contemporary Islamic litera-Jure it denotes more specifically orthodox reformism of the type that emerges in the doctrinal teachings of Muḥammad ʿAbduh, in the writings of Ras̲h̲īd Riḍā, and in the numerous Muslim authors who are influenced by these two masters and, like them, consider themselves disciples of the Salafiyya (see below). Iṣlāḥ will be examined under the foliowing general head…

, a state of East Africa bounded on the east by the Indian Ocean, on the north by Ethiopia and the Sudan, and in the south by Tanzania. It was formerly a colony of the British Empire, but became independent in December 1963. The Muslim population in the country formed about 6% of a total figure of 8,636,263 in 1962. Assuming that the number increased annually by the present rate of 3.4%, the Muslim population would number some 800,000 out of a total population of 10,942,705 in 1974. The Muslims …

(a.), “trafficking, trade, commerce”. 1. Introductory remarks. The term is taken in the Arabic lexica to be the maṣdar or verbal noun of tad̲j̲ara “to trade”. Like many of the terms in the Arabic commercial vocabulary, this is a loanword from Aramaic and Syriac. Jeffery thought ( pace earlier authorities as cited in Fraenkel, Die aramäischen Fremdwörter im Arabischen , 181-2, who derived tid̲j̲āra from an original noun tād̲j̲ir “merchant”, Syriac tagārā , verb ʾ et̲t̲agar “to trade”, cf. ʾ agrā “wage, fee, hire, reward”) that tid̲j̲āra should be derived directly from Aramaic and …

, Bilād al- , literally “land of the blacks”, the general name in pre-modern Arabic sources for the Saharo-Sahelian sector of Africa, that lying south of the Mag̲h̲rib, Libya and Egypt and stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. 1. The eastern part of the Sūdān. See for this, čad in Suppl; dārfūr ; kordofān ; nūba ; wādāy ; and for the modern period, sūdān , the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the modern Republic of Sudan. 2. History of the Western Sūdān. It is by the name Bilād al-Sūdān al-G̲h̲arbī (although the “western” qualification is n…

(late 1760s-1849), Ottoman governor-general and effective ruler of Egypt. He was known in his time and to his Ottoman milieu as Meḥmed ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a. In European sources, he was often referred to as the viceroy of Egypt or simply as the Pas̲h̲a. Assuming the title K̲h̲edive, which officially was only granted to his grandson Ismāʿīl in 1867, Muḥammad ʿAlī was Ottoman governor-general of Egypt from 1805 to 1848, when, owing to mental incapacity, the position was formally conferred on his son Ibrāhīm Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.]. His heirs ruled Egypt, with varying degrees of effective power, until 1952. …

4. xi. Algeria When the French began their occupation of Algeria in 1830 there existed multiple legal traditions. The predominant Islamic tradition was the Mālikī one which had taken root in North Africa a thousand years earlier. In the 10th/16th century, Algeria’s Ottoman rulers had introduced the Ḥanafī tradition, which prevailed in the heartland of the empire. The Turkish military élite, and their offspring from marriages with local women, the Ḳulug̲h̲lī s [see ḳul-og̲h̲lu ], tended to follow the Ḥanafī tradition. Appeals, and particularly difficult cases, might be referred to a ma…

, the name by which are commonly designated the populations, who, from the Egyptian frontier (Sīwa [ q.v.]) to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean and the great bend of the Niger, speak—or used to speak before their arabicisation—dialects (or rather local forms) of a single language, Berber. This term is probably an abusive or contemptuous epithet, used in Greek ( Barbaroi ) and in Latin ( Barbari ) as well as in Arabic ( Barbar , singular Barbarī , pl. Barābir , Barābira ), and does not constitute a national name, as some people (cf. P. H. Antichan, La Tunisie , 1884, 3) mai…

(a.), court. The subject-matter of this article is the administration of justice, and the organisation of its administration, in the Muslim countries, the office of the judge being dealt with in the art. ḳāḍī . The following topics are covered: 1. General The judicial functions of the Prophet, which had been expressly attributed to him in the Ḳurʾān (IV, 65, 105; V, 42, 48-9; XXIV, 48, 51), were taken over after his death by the first caliphs, who administered the law in person in Medina. Already under ʿUmar, the expansion of the Islami…