(a. “thresholds”), more fully, ʿalabāt-i ʿāliya or ʿatabāt-i muḳaddasa (“the lofty or sacred thresholds”), the S̲h̲īʿī shrine cities of ʿIrāḳ—Nad̲j̲af, Karbalāʾ, Kāẓimayn and Sāmarrā [ q.vv.]—comprising the tombs of six of the Imāms as well as a number of secondary shrines and places of visitation. Nad̲j̲af, 10 km. to the west of Kūfa, is the alleged site of burial of ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib (d. 41/661) (another shrine dedicated to ʿAlī is that at Mazār-i S̲h̲arīf in Northern Afghanistan; see K̲h̲wad̲j̲a Sayf al-Din K̲h̲ud̲j̲andī, Karwān-i Balk̲h̲ , Mazār-i S̲h̲ar…

et, d’une manière plus complète, ʿatabāt i ʿāliya ou ʿatabāt-i mukaddasa « les seuils élevés ou sacrés » nom donné aux quatre villes-sanctuaires s̲h̲īʿites du ʿIrāḳ: Nad̲j̲af, Karbalāʾ, Kāẓimayn et Sāmarrā, qui renferment les tombeaux de six des Imāms ainsi qu’un certain nombre de mausolées moins importants et de lieux de pèlerinage. Nad̲j̲af [ q.v.], à dix km. à l’Ouest de Kūfa, est le lieu présumé du tombeau de ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib (m. 41/661; un autre mausolée consacré à ʿAlī se trouve à Mazār-i S̲h̲arīf dans le Nord de l’Afg̲h̲ānistan; voir Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a Sayf al-dīn Ḵh̲ud̲j̲andī, Karwān-i Ba…

[Voir ʿAtabāt au Suppl.]; Karbalāʾ; al-Ḳuds; al-Madīna ; Makka ; al-Nad̲j̲af ].

ʿataba (A, pl. ʿatabāt) : doorstep. In (folk) poetry, ~ (or fars̲h̲a ‘spread, mat’) is used to designate the fi…

, ʿabd al-nabī b. ʿalī , an Imāmite faḳīh and traditionist whose life spanned two of the chief areas of S̲h̲īʿī concentration, the ʿatabāt of ʿIrāḳ and the D̲j̲abal ʿĀmil in Syria. He was born in Kāẓimayn in 1198/1784 to a father of Medinan origin, and studied there under a number of prominent ʿulamāʾ , the most important being Sayyid Muḥammad Riḍā and his son Sayyid ʿAbd Allāh al-S̲h̲ibrī. He was appointed treasurer at the shrine of Kāẓimayn, but in 1244/1828 migrated to the Ḏj̲abal ʿĀmil, settling in the village of Ḏj̲ūyā. Initially unknown, he soon became the most influential ʿālim …

(p), God, lord, master. There is no established etymology for this word and no Middle or Old Persian antecedent. It is used in G̲h̲aznawid times in the sense of lord or master (cf. Abu ’l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. Ḥusayn Bayhaḳī, Tārīk̲h̲-i Bayhaḳī , ed. ʿAlī Akbar Fayyāḍ, Mas̲h̲had 1971, 23, 435, and passim ). In documents and letters belonging to the Sald̲j̲ūḳs and K̲h̲wārazms̲h̲āhs it is used as a term of address to the sultan, usually with some qualifying word or phrase such as k̲h̲udāwand-i ʿālam “lord of the world” (cf. Muntad̲j̲ab al-Dīn al-Ḏj̲uwaynī, ʿAtabat al-kataba, ed. Muḥammad Ḳazwīn…

, ʿAbd al-Nabī b. ʿAlī, faḳih et traditionniste imāmite dont la vie s’étendit sur deux des principales régions de concentration s̲h̲īʿite, les ʿatabāt du ʿIrāḳ et le d̲j̲abal ʿĀmil, au Liban. Né à Kāẓimayn en 1198/1784, d’un père d’origine médinoise, il y fit ses études sous la direction d’un certain nombre d’éminents ʿulamāʾ, dont les plus importants sont Sayyid Muḥammad Riḍā et son fils, Sayyid ʿAbd Allāh al-S̲h̲ibrī, puis fut nommé trésorier du mausolée de Kāẓimayn, mais il émigra au d̲j̲abal ʿĀmil en 1244/1828 et s’établit dans le village de …

, Āḳā Sayyid Muḥammad Bāḳir , S̲h̲īʿī mud̲j̲tahid and proponent of the Uṣūlī [ q.v.] mad̲h̲hab , often entitled Waḥīd-i Bihbihānī or Muḥaḳḳiḳ-i Bihbihānī, and commonly regarded by his S̲h̲īʿī contemporaries as the “renewer” ( mud̲j̲addid ) of the 12th Hid̲j̲rī century. He was born in Iṣfahān some time between the years 1116/1704-5 and 1118/1706-7. After a brief period spent in Bihbihān, he was taken to Karbalāʾ by his father, Mullā Muḥammad Akmal, whose principal student he became, while studying also under S…

, Āḳā Sayyid Muḥammad Bāḳir, mud̲j̲tahid s̲h̲īʿite et défenseur du mad̲h̲hab uṣūlī, à qui l’on donne souvent le titre de Waḥīd-i Bihbihānī ou Muḥaḳḳiḳ-i Bihbihānī et que ses contemporains s̲h̲īʿites considèrent couramment comme le « rénovateur » ( mud̲j̲addid) du XIIe siècle de l’hégire. Il naquit à Iṣfahān entre 1116 et 1118/1704-7 et, après un séjour à Bihbihān, il fut emmené à Karbalāʾ par son père, Mullā Muḥammad Akmal, dont il devint le principal étudiant, tout en suivant les cours de Sayyid Ṣadr al-dīn Ḳummī. Mullā Muḥammad Akma…

(“bridgehead of Zohāb”), a place on the way to the Zagros Mountains on the great Bag̲h̲dād-Kirmāns̲h̲āh road, taking its name from the stone bridge of two arches over the river Alwand, a tributary on the left bank of the Diyāla. Sarpul in the early 20th century consisted simply of a little fort ( ḳūr-k̲h̲āna = “arsenal”) in which the governor of Zohāb lived (the post was regularly filled by the chief of the tribe of Gūrān), a caravanserai, a garden of cypress and about 40 houses. The old town of Zohāb, about 4 hours to the no…

, or Taḳī al-Dīn Muḥammad al-Ḥusaynī al-Awḥadī, Persian anthologist, lexicographer and poet. He was born at Iṣfahān on 3 Muḥarram 973/31 January 1565, into a family with a Ṣūfī tradition from Balyān in Fārs. One of his paternal ancestors was the 5th/11th-century S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abū ʿAlī al-Daḳḳāḳ. During his adolescence he studied in S̲h̲īrāz, where he presented his early poems to a circle of poets and was encouraged by ʿUrfī [ q.v.]. Returning to Iṣfahān, he attracted the attention of the young S̲h̲āh ʿAbbās I and joined his entourage. In 1003/1594-5, Taḳī retired for six years to the ʿatabāt …

(“bridgehead of Zohāb”), a place on the way to Zagros on the great Bag̲h̲dād-Kirmāns̲h̲āh road, taking its name from the stone bridge of two arches over the river Alwand, a tributary on the left bank of the ¶ Diyāla. Sarpul now consists simply of a little fort ( ḳūr-k̲h̲āna = “arsenal”) in which the governor of Zohāb lives (the post is regularly filled by the chief of the tribe of Gūrān), a caravanserai, a garden of cypress and about 40 houses. The old town of Zohāb about 4 hours to the north is now in ruins. To the east behind the cliffs of …

(a.), an administrative-military term in the mediaeval eastern Islamic world. From the end of the 3rd/9th century, the term, which in a general sense meant a body of armed men, sufficing for the guarding and control of a town or district on the part of the sultan, is occasionally found in the specific sense of the s̲h̲urṭa [ q.v.] (Tyan, L’organisation judicaire en pays d’Islam , Paris 1938-43, ii, 366, n. 5). As the designation for a military governor of a town or province, the term s̲h̲iḥna belongs primarily to the period of the Great Sald̲j̲ūḳs, though Ab…

Abū l-Ḥasan b. Muḥammad Amīn Gulistāna was a government official in Kirmānshāhān (southeastern Kurdistan) who wrote an important chronicle of Iranian history after Nādir Shāh (r. 1147–60/1736–47). He came from a family of Ḥasanī sayyids (claiming descent from the Prophet) from Isfahan. In the post-Ṣafavid era, many of his relatives became government officials in various parts of Iran. One uncle, Mīrzā Muḥammad Taqī, held several positions of fiscal responsibility under Nādir and his successors in Kirmānshāhān and Persian Iraq, u…

(p.), dieu, seigneur, maître; l’on n’a pu établir l’étymologie précise de ce mot et on ne lui connaît aucun antécédent dans le vieux perse ou le moyen persan. Il était utilisé à l’époque g̲h̲aznawide dans le sens de seigneur ou maître (cf. Abū l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. Ḥusayn Bayhaḳī, Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Bayhaḳī, éd. ʿAlī Akbar Fayyāḍ, Mas̲h̲had 1971, 23, 435 et passim). Dans des documents et les lettres concernant les Sald̲j̲ūḳides et les Ḵh̲wārazms̲h̲āhs, il est employé comme terme d’adresse au sultan, habituellement suivi d’un qualificatif ou d’une phrase tels que k̲h̲udāwand-i ʿālam, «seigneur …

, as epithet of the ruler. The word humāyūn is frequently used in the S̲h̲āhnāma with the meaning of “fortunate, glorious, royal”. Its specialized use for things or ideas connected with the ruler is already seen here in the designation of the legendary imperial banner as dirafs̲h̲-i humāyūn . ¶ It was only slowly, however, that the word penetrated into Persian chancery style. In the ins̲h̲āʾ work ʿAtabat al-kataba of Muntad̲j̲ab al-Dīn D̲j̲uwaynī, which was compiled towards the end of the Great Seld̲j̲ūḳ period, the idea does not yet appear. It is only in the chancery of the K̲h̲wārazms̲h̲āh…

Shaykh Aḥmad b. Zayn al-Dīn al-Aḥsāʾī (1166–1241/1753–1826) was an ʿālim, an Imāmī mystic and philosopher, and the eponymous leading figure of the theological-mystical school of the Shaykhiyya. He was born in al-Aḥsāʾ (also known as al-Ḥasā), in al-Baḥrayn (in the premodern sense, referring to the mainland of eastern Arabia), to a family that had converted to Imāmī Shīʿism five generations earlier. Little is known of the first years of his life but that he had an unquenchable thirst for knowledge. Neithe…

, arabicized form of dehkān , the head of a village and a member of the lesser feudal nobility of Sāsānian Persia. The power of the dihḳāns derived from their hereditary title to the local administration. They were an immensely important class, although the actual area of land they cultivated as the hereditary possession of their family was often small. They were the representatives of the government vis-à-vis the peasants and their principal function was to collect taxes; and, in the opinion of Chr…

, a heterodox S̲h̲īʿī sect of the later 19th and early 20th centuries in Persia. It is named after a certain Ag̲h̲ā Muḥammad Kāẓim Tunbākū-furūs̲h̲ of Iṣfahān, known as Ṭāwūs al-ʿurafāʾ “Peacock of the (Ṣūfī) initiates” from his elegant dress, who broke away from the Niʿmat-Allāhiyya [ q.v.] Ṣūfī order. On the death of Raḥmat ʿAlī S̲h̲āh S̲h̲īrāzī, who represented the Niʿmat-Allārīs in Iṣfahan, Ṭāwūs refused to recognise his successor there, and, on his expulsion from Iṣfahān in 1281/1864-5, moved to Tehran, dying there in 1293/1876. He was succeeded as ḳuṭb of …

(a.), appartient à la titulature de l’administration militaire du monde islamique oriental médiéval. A partir de la fin du IIIe/IXe siècle, le mot, qui au sens le plus général désigne un corps d’hommes d’armes assurant la garde et le contrôle d’une ville ou d’un district pour le compte de l’autorité, se trouve parfois dans le sens spécifique de s̲h̲urṭa [ q.v.] (Tyan, L’organisation judiciaire en pays d’Islam, Paris 1938-43, II, 366, n. 5). Comme titre du gouverneur militaire d’une ville ou d’une province, le mot appartient primitivement à la période des Grand…

, ou Taḳī al-dīn Muḥammad al-Ḥusaynī al-Awḥadī, auteur d’anthologies, lexicographe et poète persan. Né à Iṣfahān le 3 Muḥarram 973/31 Janvier 1565, d’une famille de tradition ṣūfie originaire de Balyān, dans le Fārs. Il eut pour ancêtre du côté de son père, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abū ʿAlī al-Daḳḳāḳ, au Ve/XIe siècle. Au cours de son adolescence, il étudia à S̲h̲īrāz, où il présenta ses premiers poèmes à un cercle de poètes et il fut encouragé par ʿUrfī [ q.v.]. De retour à Iṣfahān, il attira l’attention du jeune S̲h̲āh ʿAbbās Ier et rejoignit ses familiers. En 1003/1594-5, Taḳī se retira pour …

(«la tête de pont de Ḏh̲uhāb»), endroit aux approches du Zagros sur la grande route Bag̲h̲dād-Kirmāns̲h̲āh, tirant son nom du pont en pierre à deux arches sur la rivière Alwand, affluent gauche du Diyāla. Sarpul ne se composait au début du XXe siècle que d’un fortin ( ḳūrk̲h̲āna «arsenal») servant de résidence au gouverneur de Ḏh̲uhāb (poste habituellement occupé par le chef de la tribu Gūrān), d’un caravansérail, d’un jardin de cyprès et d’une quarantaine de huttes. La vieille ville de Ḏh̲uhāb, qui se trouve à 4 heures de distance vers le N…

, a town and one of the most celebrated S̲h̲īʿī places of pilgrimage in ʿIrāk. It is a little over one km. from the right bank of the Tigris, which here describes a loop, being separated from the river by a series of gardens. Kāẓimayn itself is prettily situated among palmgroves. It is connected with the west side of Bag̲h̲dād, about three miles away, by regular bus and taxi services, replacing the horse-tramway laid down by the governor Midḥat Pās̲h̲ā (1869-72), who did a great deal for Bag̲h̲d…

(a.) denotes, in contemporary usage, one who possesses the aptitude to form ¶ his own judgement on questions concerning the s̲h̲arīʿa , using personal effort ( id̲j̲tihād [ q.v.]) in the interpretation of the fundamental principles ( uṣūl [ q.v.]) of the s̲h̲arīʿa. The prerogatives of mud̲j̲tahid s are thus essentially linked to the diverse connotations of the term id̲j̲tihād which have varied in the course of time and according to schools. Its application to the field of jurisprudence is in fact a narrowing of the concept, the terms id̲j̲tahada / id̲j̲tihād sign…

Karakhanid (Qarakhānid) literature is a general term traditionally applied in the field of Turkic studies to designate a linguistically heterogeneous group of literary texts with a wide variety of content written in Turkic during the reign of the Karakhanids (382–609/992–1212), the first dynasty of Turkic origin in the Perso-Islamic world that used Turkic as an official and literary language. It is important to note, however, that the Karakhanid state was divided into two branches; the eastern bra…

, the night patrol or watch in Muslim cities. According to Maḳrīzī the first to carry out this duty was ʿAbdallah b. Masʿūd, who was ordered by Abu Bakr to patrol the streets of Medina by night. ʿUmar is said to have gone on patrol in person, accompanied by his mawlā Aslam and by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAwf. ( Ḵh̲iṭaṭ . ii, 223, cf. Ṭabarī, i, 5, 2742; R. Levy, (ed.) Maʿālim al-Ḳurba , 216; al-G̲h̲azzālī, Naṣīḥat al-Mulūk (ed. Humāʾī, 13, 58). Later the ʿasas was commanded by a police officer, known as the ṣāḥib al-ʿasas (Maḳrīzī, loc. cit.; Ibn Tag̲h̲rībirdī, ii, 73; Nuw…

, the most notable of the anti-constitutionalist ʿulamāʾ ’in the Persian Revolution of 1906. Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Faḍl Allāh Nūrī was born in Tehran in 1259/1843-4 and went at an early age to study in the ʿAtabāt [ q.v. in Suppl.] under his uncle Mīrzā Muḥammad Ḥusayn Nūrī, and under Mīrzā Ḥasan S̲h̲īrāzī (M. Turkamān, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲-i s̲h̲ahīd Faḍl Allāh Nūrī , Tehran 1362 S̲h̲ /1983, i, 9). In about 1300/1883 he returned to Tehran, where he gradually emerged as the leading scholar and jurist. He was active in the movement against the T…

, ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn b. al-Sayyid Yūsuf , al-Mūsawī al-ʿĀmilī , famous Imāmī S̲h̲īʿī mud̲j̲tahid [ q.v.], one of the promoters of what has been called the “S̲h̲īʿī awakening” in modern Lebanon [see mutawālī ]. According to his autobiography, he was born in 1290/1873 at al-Kāẓimayn [ q.v.], where his father had emigrated to, for the purpose of studying, from S̲h̲(u)ḥūr, a village near Tyre in the D̲j̲abal ʿĀmil [see ʿāmila ]. Having received his primary education, mainly in ¶ southern Lebanon, ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn came back to Irāḳ in 1892, and he pursued his studies in Nad̲j̲af unt…

, f. mud̲j̲āwira (a.), active participle of the form III verb d̲j̲āwara in the meaning of neighbour [see also d̲j̲iwār ]. In the restricted sense, the term indicates, as does the synonym d̲j̲ār allāh , a person who, for a shorter or longer period of time, settles in a holy place in order to lead a life of ascetism and religious contemplation and to receive the baraka of that place. Such places are the Kaʿba in Mecca, the ḥaram in Jerusalem and the Prophet’s tomb in Medina, but also the tombs of earlier prophets [see al-k̲h̲alīl ], of the companions of Muḥammad, of the Imams and their desce…

( āyat allāh , current orthography Ayatollah), a title with an hierarchical significance used by the Imāmī, Twelver S̲h̲īʿīs, and meaning literally “Miraculous sign ( āya [ q.v.]) of God”. In order to understand its sense and its implications, one has to consider the recent evolution of certain institutions worked out by the Imāmī ʿulamāʾ . Since the dominating attitude of Imāmism has been dictated by the doctrine that all political power—even if exercised by a S̲h̲īʿī—is illegitimate during the occultation of the Hidden Imām, it has only been compar…

, S̲h̲āh , Ṣafawid ruler, reigned 1105-35/1694-1722, the eldest son and successor of S̲h̲āh Sulaymān [ q.v.], born in 1080/1669-70 to a Circassian mother, and died in 1139/1726. He was crowned S̲h̲āh on 7 August 1694, nine days after his father’s death after divisions of opinion at court over the succession. S̲h̲āh Ṣultān Ḥusayn resembled his father in having grown up in the confines of the harem and in coming to power with limited life experience and virtually no training in the affairs of state. Exceedingly devout, he immediately fell under th…

, dirigeant ṣafavide, r. 1105-35/1694-1722, fils aîné et successeur du S̲h̲āh Sulaymān [ q.v.]. Né en 1080/1669-70 d’une mère circassienne et mort en 1139/1726, il fut couronné S̲h̲āh le 7 août 1694 après la mort de son père et des divergences d’opinion de cour concernant la succession. De même que son père. S̲h̲āh Ṣultān Ḥusayn grandit au sein du harem et arriva au pouvoir sans véritable expérience de la vie et sans avoir été formé en pratique à la gestion des affaires de l’Etat. Excessivement pieux, il tomba immédiatement sous l’influence …

Muḥammad Ibrāhīm Kalbāsī (or Karbāsī, 1179–1262/1766–1845) was amongst the most prominent Shīʿī scholars in the world and was central to the neo-Uṣūlī network in Iran. Neo-Uṣūlism has been the most powerful socio-intellectual movement in the Shīʿī world since the twelfth/eighteenth century and is rooted in the rationalist school of Shīʿī law. Kalbāsī helped consolidate the international Shīʿī community in the hands of Uṣūlīs, who persecuted Akhbārīs, Ṣūfīs, and others as a result of ideological di…

Abū l-Ḥasan b. Muḥammad Ṭāhir al-Sharīf al-ʿĀmilī al-Iṣfahānī (c. 1070–c. 1139/c. 1659 or 1660–1726 or 1727) was an Akhbārī Imāmī mystical theologian and Qurʾān commentator. Born to a family of scholars originally from Jabal ʿĀmil, in present-day south Lebanon, he was born and raised in Isfahan and Baḥrayn and spent most of life in Najaf, where he was buried. He studied with some of the greatest ʿulamāʾ of his time such as Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisī (d. 1110/1699), Niʿmatallāh al-Jazāʾirī (d. 1112/1701), Aḥmad Muḥammad b. Yūsuf al-Baḥrānī (d. 1102/1690–1), Mu-ḥ…

Mullā Muḥammad Kāẓim Ākhūnd al-Khurāsānī (1255–1329/1839–1911) was an important Imāmī religious authority. He was born and raised in Mashhad. After receiving his basic education there, at the age of twenty he travelled to Sabzawār, where he studied with the great philosopher Ḥājj Mullā Hādī Sabzawārī (d. 1295/1878). Later, he went on to study with Mullā l-Ḥusayn al-Khūʾī in Tehran, and in Najaf with two consecutive “models for emulation” (marjaʿ al-taqlīd), al-Shaykh al-Murtaḍā al-Anṣārī (d. 1281/1864) and Mīrzā Muḥammad Ḥasan al-Shīrāzī (d. 1312/1895), the latte…

ʿAlī Riḍā Qājār ʿAḍud al-Mulk (1263?–1328/1847?–1910) was the first cousin of Nāṣir al-Dīn Shāh (r. 1264–1313/1848–96); his father was the brother of Mahdī ʿUlyā, Nāṣir al-Dīn Shāh’s mother. Muḥammad Ḥasan Khān Iʿtimād al-Salṭana and Edward G. Browne give his birthdate as 1263/1847, but if that were true, he would have been only eleven years old when he tipped off Mīrzā Āqā Khān Nūrī, Nāṣir al-Dīn Shāh’s prime minister from 1268/1852 until 1275/1858, on his impending dismissal, only twenty when he l…

Mīrzā Muḥammad “ Sārū” Taqī (b. c.972/1565, d. 1055/1645) was a Ṣafavid grand vizier. The scion of a middle-ranking family of mustawfīs (comptrollers) in Tabriz, Mīrzā Muḥammad “Sārū” (blond) Taqī, was neither a member of the Qizilbāsh (Turkmen tribes who wore red caps to signify their support of the founders of the Ṣafavid dynasty) nor, strictly speaking, a ghulām (slave-soldier) in the sense of being a converted Christian from the Caucasus. He first made a name for himself as mushrif (financial supervisor) of the ruler of Ardabil, Dhū l-Fiqār Qarāmānlū. He subsequently h…

Sayyid Mīrzā Muḥammad Bāqir Khvānsārī (b. 1227/1811–2, d. 1313/1895), also known as Ṣāhib al-Rawḍāt, wrote Rawḍāt al-jannāt fī aḥwāl al-ʿulamāʾ wa-l-sādāt (“Gardens of Paradise. Attainments of religious scholars and nobles”), a widely cited biographical dictionary of Shīʿī scholars and nobles, completed in 1305/1888. This eight-volume work is a pre-eminent source on the rise of Uṣūlism in the nineteenth century and an important piece of anti-Akhbārī, pro-Uṣūlī literature that reflects Uṣūlī perceptions of clerical …

Muḥammad Shāh Qājār, titled Ghazī (warrior), was the third Qājār shah of Iran (r. 1250–64/1834–48). His short reign resembles an interregnum between those of his grandfather Fatḥ ʿAlī Shāh (r. 1212–50/1797–1834) and his son Nāṣir al-Dīn Shāh (r. 1264–1313/1848–96). He was the eldest son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā (Prince ʿAbbās), Nāʾib al-Salṭana (d. 1249/1833), Fatḥʿalī’s crown prince and governor general of Azerbaijan, who led the Iranian forces in the Russian-Persian wars that resulted in the defeat of th…

The title amīr al-umarāʾ was an honorific bestowed during the ʿAbbāsid caliphate on the caliph’s locum tenens or his de facto ruler. From the Mongol period onwards, this was the title of the commander of the army as locum tenens of the ruler, although it was also given to important commanders of large army units. Initially the Islamic amīr had military, fiscal, and religious responsibilities and was not just the commander of the army. For example, the function of the first two caliphs, Abū Bakr (r. 11–3/632–4) and ʿUmar (r. 13–23/634–44), was also referred to as ammārat al-umāraʾ, the calip…

, le plus notable des ʿulamāʾ anti-constitutionalistes pendant la révolution iranienne de 1906. Né à Téhéran en 1259/1843-4, il alla de bonne heure étudier dans les ʿAtabāt [ q.v. au Suppl.] sous la direction de son oncle Mīrzā Muḥammad Ḥusayn Nūrī et de Mīrzā Ḥasan S̲h̲īrāzī (voir M. Turkamān, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ s̲h̲ahīd Faḍl Allāh Nūrī, Téhéran 1362 p./1983, I, 9). Vers 1300/1883, il retourna à Téhéran où il se distingua peu à peu pour devenir un grand savant et juriste. Il participa activement au mouvement contre la concession des tabacs en 1308-9/1890…

In the past, Turks have used two kinds of prosody in their poems: Syllabic prosody (hece vezni) and aruz (ʿarūḍ) prosody. Syllabic prosody is a Turkic prosody based on the principle of equality in the number of syllables in verses. This type of prosody is also called parmak hesabı , hesab-ı benan (ḥisāb-ı benān), vezn-i benan, vezn-i benani ( vezn-i benānī, counting on the fingers) by poets since they were counting on their fingers to equate the number of syllables. On the other hand, aruz prosody had been developed among Arabs and Persians and it was used also by Turkish poets…

Murtaḍā (Murtazā) b. Muḥammad Amīn al-Anṣārī (1214–81/1799–1864) was an Imāmī “model for emulation” (marjaʿ al-taqlīd). Born in Dizfūl, in the southwest of Iran, he received his first instruction in traditional Islamic sciences in his native town from the ʿālim al-Shaykh al-Ḥusayn al-Anṣārī, his paternal uncle. At the age of eighteen, during a pilgrimage to Karbalāʾ in the company of his father, his rhetorical talents and legal knowledge were acknowledged by the great mujtahid (a jurist deemed qualified to form his own judgments on sharīʿa, based on ijtihād (personal effort)) Muḥ…

b. Malik S̲h̲āh , ʿAḍud al-Dawla Abu ’l-Ḥārit̲h̲ Aḥmad, Sald̲j̲ūḳ malik in K̲h̲urāsān 490-511/1097-1118 and then supreme sultan of the Great Saldjuḳs, ruling K̲h̲urāsān and northern Persia till his death in 552/1157; he accordingly ruled for some 60 years. The name Sand̲j̲ar, which occurs for other members of the Sald̲j̲ūḳ family and elsewhere in the Turkish world, seems to mean in Turkish “he who pierces, thrusts”, cf. M.Th. Houtsma, Ein türkisch-arabisches Glossar , Leiden 1894, text 29, glossary 78, 80, and the detailed discussion by P. Pelliot, in Oeuvres posthumes, ii, Paris 19…

2. History and development since 1914. In the course of the 20th century, Mas̲h̲had has become a regional metropolis (2,155,700 inhabitants in 2004), the capital of the vast province of Ḵh̲urāsān, and well integrated into the economic and public life of Iran. At the same time, it has kept its character as a goal of pilgrimage, dominated by the strength of the economic and political authority of the Āstānayi ḳuds-i riḍawī, the administration of the Shrine waḳf , probably the most important in the Muslim world. In 1914, despite its religious importance, Mas̲h̲had was a marginal tow…

(a.) désigne, dans son acceptation la plus courante, celui qui possède l’aptitude de former son propre jugement sur les questions concernant la s̲h̲arīʿa en utilisant son effort personnel ( id̲j̲tihād [ q.v.]) d’interprétation des principes fondamentaux ( uṣūl [ q.v.]) de ladite s̲h̲arīʿa. Les prérogatives des mud̲j̲tahids sont donc essentiellement liées aux diverses connotations du terme id̲j̲tihād qui ont varié au cours du temps et selon les écoles. Son application au domaine de la jurisprudence est en fait un rétrécissement du concept, les termes id̲j̲tahada/id̲j̲tihād signi…

, ville d’Irak qui est l’un des lieux de pèlerinage des S̲h̲ī ʿites les plus célèbres. Située à un peu plus d’un km. de la rive droite du Tigre qui, à cet endroit, décrit une boucle, elle en est séparée par une ceinture de jardins et occupe une situation pittoresque entre des palmeraies. Elle est reliée à Bagdad-Ouest, à 5 km. environ, par des services réguliers d’autobus et de taxis qui ont remplacé les voitures sur rails tirées par des chevaux que le gouverneur Midḥat Pas̲h̲a (1869-72 [ q.v.]), qui s’occupa beaucoup de Bagdad, avait mises ¶ en place. Ḳāẓimayn est aussi une station sur la…

(a.), pl. matāwila/mutāwila , mtawleh in colloquial Lebanese, métoualis in French, name for the Twelver S̲h̲īʿīs [see it̲h̲nā ʿas̲h̲ariyya ] in Lebanon [see lubnān ]. The term is also used for those Twelver S̲h̲īʿīs who emigrated from there to Damascus, but not, generally speaking, for those resident in Ḥamāt, Ḥims, Aleppo or elsewhere in Syria. The name seems to have come into use at first as Banū Mutawāl , and not before the 11th-12th/17th-18th centuries. It most probably was the name by which the S̲h̲īʿīs of the D̲j̲abal ʿĀmil [see ʿāmila ], of Baalbek [see baʿlabakk …

or mas̲h̲had ʿalī , a town and place of pilgrimage in ʿIrāḳ 10 km 6 miles west of al-Kūfa. It lies on the edge of the desert on a flat barren eminence from which the name al-Nad̲j̲af has been transferred to it (A. Musil, The Middle Euphrates , 35), at an altitude of 37 m/120 feet in lat. 31° 59′ N. and long. 44° 20′ E. According to the usual tradition, the Imām al-Muʾminīn ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib [ q.v.] was buried near al-Kūfa, not far from the dam which protected the city from flooding by the Euphrates at the place where the ¶ town of al-Nad̲j̲af later arose (Yāḳūt, Muʿd̲j̲am , iv, 760)…

(p.), épithète s’appliquant au souverain. Le mot humāyūn est fréquemment employé dans le S̲h̲āhnāma avec le sens de «fortuné, glorieux, royal»; l’usage spécialisé du terme pour désigner des choses ou des notions en rapport avec le souverain y apparaît déjà dans l’appellation de la bannière impériale légendaire sous la forme dirafs̲h̲-i humāyūn. Ce terme ne pénétra cependant que lentement dans l’usage du style de la chancellerie persane. Dans l’ouvrage d’ ins̲h̲āʾ de Muntad̲j̲ab al-dīn Ḏj̲uwaynī intitulé ʿAtabat al-kataba et écrit vers la fin de la période des Grands Sald…

(Āyat Allāh, orthographe courante: Ayatollāh), titre à valeur hiérarchique utilisé par les S̲h̲īʿites imāmites duodécimains, signifiant «Signe ( āya) [ q.v.] de Dieu». Pour en comprendre le sens et les implications, il importe de situer l’évolution récente de certaines institutions élaborées par les ʿulamāʾ imāmites. L’attitude dominante de l’Imāmisine ayant été dictée par la doctrine considérant tout pouvoir politique — même dirigé par un S̲h̲īʿite — comme illégitime durant l’occultation de l’Imām caché, ce n’est que tardivement, à partir…

, ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn b. al-Sayyid Yūsuf, al-Mūsawī al-ʿĀmilī, mud̲j̲tahid [ q.v.] s̲h̲īʿite imāmite renommé, un des promoteurs de ce qu’on a appelé «le réveil s̲h̲īʿite» au Liban moderne [voir Mutawālī]. D’après son autobiographie, il naquit en 1290/1873 à al-Kāẓimayn [ q.v.], où son père, pour des raisons d’études, avait émigré de S̲h̲(u)ḥur, un village près de Tyr dans le Ḏj̲abal ʿĀmil [voir ʿĀmila]. Après une éducation primaire au Liban, ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn retourna en ʿIrāḳ en 1892, et poursuivit ses études à Nad̲j̲af jusqu’en mai 1804, quand il rentra dans son …

, f. mud̲j̲āwira (a.), participe actif du verbe de IIIe forme d̲j̲āwāra, significant voisin [voir aussi Ḏj̲iwār]. Au sens restreint, le mot désigne, comme son synonyme d̲j̲ār Allāh, une personne qui, pour un temps plus ou moins long, s’installe dans un lieu saint pour y mener une existence de contemplation ascétique et religieuse, et s’approprier la baraka qui s’attache à cet endroit. Tels sont la Kaʿba de La Mekke, le ḥaram de Jérusalem et le tombeau du Prophète à Médine, mais aussi les tombes de prophètes antérieurs [voir al-Ḵh̲alīl], des Compagnons de Muḥammad, des Imāms et de l…

,’la ronde de nuit ou le guet dans les villes musulmanes. Selon al-Maḳrīzī, le premier à occuper cet emploi fut ʿAbd Allāh b. Masʿūd, à qui Abū Bakr donna l’ordre de faire des rondes de nuit dans les rues de Médine. On prétend que ʿUmar en personne ¶ effectua des rondes, accompagné de son mawlā Aslam et de ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAwf ( Ḵh̲iṭaṭ, II, 223, cf. al-Ṭabarī, I, 5, 2742; R. Levy (éd.), Maʿālim al-ḳurba, 216; al-G̲h̲azzālī, Naṣīḥat al-mulūk, éd. Humāʾī, 13, 58). Plus tard, le ʿasas fut sous les ordres d’un officier de police appel é ṣāḥib al-ʿasas (al-Maḳrīzī, loc. cit.; Ibn Tag̲h̲rībirdī, II…

(a.), pl. ruʾasāʾ , from raʾs , “head”, denotes the “chief, leader” of a recognisable group (political, religious, juridical, tribal, or other). The term goes back to pre-Islamic times and was used in various senses at different periods of Islamic history, either to circumscribe specific functions of the holder of the office of “leadership” ( riʾāsa ) or as a honorific title ( laḳab [ q.v.]). 1. In the sense of “mayor” in the central Arab lands. Here, the raʾīs most commonly referred to was the head of a village, a city or a city-region. He emerged as…

ou Mas̲h̲had ʿAlī, ville et lieu de pèlerinage du ʿIrāḳ, à 10 km à l’Ouest de Kūfa. Cette ville se trouve en bordure du désert sur une hauteur aride, en forme de plateau, ce qui lui a fait donner le nom d’al-Nad̲j̲af (A. Musil, The Middle Euphrates, 35); elle est située à 31° 59’ de latitude N. et 44° 20’ de longitude E., à une altitude de 37 m. D’après la tradition courante, ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib [ q.v.] a été enterré près de Kūfa, non loin de la digue qui protégeait cette ville contre les crues de l’Euphrate, à l’endroit où se développa plus tard la ville d’al-Nad̲j̲af (Yāḳ…

Sayyid Mīr ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd Maʿṣūm ʿAlī Shāh Dakanī (b. c. 1147/1734–5, d. end twelfth/eighteenth century) was an Indian-born spiritual master of the Niʿmatallāhī Ṣūfī order who revived Niʿmatallāhī Ṣūfism in Persia in the second half of the twelfth/eighteenth century (the Niʿmatallāhiyya, historically influential in Central Asia and India but today mostly in Iran, with significant groups in the West, goes back to Shāh Niʿmatallāh Valī, d. 843/1431, a Syrian-born Iranian mystic and author who settled in K…

(a.), plur. matāwila/mutāwila, mtawleh en dialectal libanais, métoualis en français, est le nom des S̲h̲īʿites duodécimains [voir It̲h̲nā ʿas̲h̲ariyya] au Liban. Le terme est employé aussi pour les Duodécimains émigrés à Damas, mais en général pas pour ceux qui habitent Ḥamāt, Ḥimṣ ou Alep ou ailleurs en Syrie; il semble avoir été d’abord Banū Mutawāl et ne paraît pas antérieur au XI-XIIe/XVII-XVIIIe siècle. Il est très probable que c’était le nom que les S̲h̲īʿites du d̲j̲abal ʿAmil [voir ʿĀmila] de Baalbek [voir Baʿlabakk] et du Liban du Nord se donnaient eux-mêmes. À partir du XVIIe s…

(t.), Heaven, God. In the eastern Turkish dialects the vocalisation is usually palatal: Čag̲h̲atay, tengri (written ) and similar forms in the other dialects. The trisyllabic forms in Teleut ( täñärä ) and in the Altai dialect ( täñäri ) are worthy of note; the Kazan Tatar dialect has alongside of tängri (god) a word täri = image of a saint, ikon (we may here mention the proper name Täri-birdi , where täri of course means God). The Og̲h̲uz dialects (Ottoman Turkish, Azerbaijani and Turkmen) have a non-palatal vocalisation, as has Yakut ( tañara ) and Chuvas̲h̲ ( tură < tañri̊ ). For the lexicogr…

, a collection of poetry or prose [see ʿarabiyya ; persian literature ; turkish literature ; urdū literature and s̲h̲iʿr ], a register, or an office. Sources differ about linguistic roots. Some ascribe to it a Persian origin from dev , ‘mad’ or ‘devil’, to describe secretaries. Others consider it Arabic from dawwana , to collect or to register, thus meaning a collection of records or sheets. (See Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , i, 90; LA, xvii, 23-4; Ṣūlī, Adab al-kuttāb , 187; Māwardī, al-Aḥkām al-sulṭāniyya , 175; D̲j̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, Wuzarāʾ , ¶ 16-17; cf. Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ ,…

Shaykh Muḥammad Taqī Āqā Najafī Iṣfahānī (1846–1914) was a prominent if controversial mujtahid who played an active role in the politics of Isfahan. His role during the Constitutional Revolution was ambivalent and evasive, showing himself neither as revolutionary nor activist. Under the city’s Bakhtiārī regime since 1909, he managed to maintain a position of influence, but had to act more carefully and indirectly. Born on 22 Rabīʿ II 1262/19 April 1846) to a family of clerics in Isfahan who were descended t…

2. À partir de 1914. Au cours du XXe siècle, Mas̲h̲had est devenue une métropole régionale (2 millions d’habitants en 1996), capitale de la très vaste province du Ḵh̲urāsān, bien intégrée à la vie économique et politique de l’Iran, tout en gardant son caractère de ville de pèlerinage dominée par le renforcement de l’autorité économique et politique de l’ Astāna ḳuds Riḍāvi (administration du waḳf du sanctuaire, probablement le plus important du monde musulman). En 1914, malgré son importance religieuse, Mas̲h̲had était une ville en marge de l’Iran (Adamec, s.v). La population (70 00…

(pl. marād̲j̲iʿ-i taḳlid , Pers. for Ar. mard̲j̲aʿ/marād̲j̲iʿ al-taḳlīd ), title and function of a hierarchal nature denoting a Twelver Imām S̲h̲īʿī jurisconsult ( muad̲j̲tahid , faḳīh ) who is to be considered during his lifetime, by virtue of his qualities and his wisdom, a model for reference, for “imitation” or “emulation”—a term employed to an increasing extent by English-speaking authors—by every observant Imāmī S̲h̲īʿī (with the exception of mud̲j̲tahids ) on all aspects of religious practice and law. As in the case of other institutions, the history of this function (called mar…

, Muḥammad b. Sulaymān (885 ?-963/1480?-1556), (in Turkish Fuzūlī) one of the most illustrious authors of Classical Turkish literature. He was born in ʿIrāḳ at the time of the Aḳ-Ḳoyunlu (White Sheep Dynasty) domination, probably at Karbalā, although Bag̲h̲dād, Ḥilla, Nad̲j̲af, Kirkūk, Manzil and Hīt are also mentioned as his birthplace. It is reported on uncertain authority that his father was muftī of Ḥilla, that he was taught by one Raḥmat Allāh, that he first took to poetry when he fell in love with this teacher’s daughter and th…

, Persian, “army commander”, Arabized form isfahsalār , iṣbahsalār : the title given to commanders-in-chief and general officers in the armies of many states of the central and eastern mediaeval Islamic world. On the component sālār and its Middie Persian origins, see sālār. The compound spāhsālār is already attested in Pāzand (i.e. Middle Persian transcribed from Pahlavi into Avestan script), e.g. in the 9th century ¶ S̲h̲kand-gumānik vičār (Hübschmann, Armenische Grammatik , 235). i. The Islamic world excepting India The Ispahsālār as a military leader appears to be the …

, a mountainous peninsula on the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea. The northern part of Mangi̊s̲h̲lak (the Buzači peninsula) is a lowland covered with small salt-marshes. In the central part, the Mangi̊stau mountains stretch from northwest to southeast for ca. 100 miles; they consist of three ranges, Southern and Northern Aktau and karatau, the last one running between the first two. The highest peak (in the karatau) is only 1,824 feet. To the south of the mountains lies the Mangi̊s̲h̲lak Plateau. From the east, the peninsula borders…

(a.), pl. ruʾasāʾ, de raʾs, «tête», désigne le «chef», ou «leader» d’un groupe identifié (politique, religieux, juridique, tribal ou autre). Le terme remonte aux temps préislamiques et a été employé en divers sens à différentes époques de l’histoire de l’Islam, soit pour définir les fonctions du possesseur d’une rīʾāsa, ou comme titre honorifique ( laḳab [ q.v.]). 1. Dans le sens de «maire» dans les pays arabes centraux. Ici, le titre de raʾīs était le plus souvent affecté au chef d’un village, d’une ville ou d’un district urbain. Il apparaît comme une sorte de «mai…

, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Murtaḍā, bien qu’inconnu en Occident, est considéré comme un mud̲j̲tahid s̲h̲īʿite dont l’autorité religieuse, largement reconnue dans le monde s̲h̲īʿite, n’a pas encore été surpassée. Né en 1214/1799 dans une famille cléricale, mais pauvre, de Dizfūl (Sud de l’Iran) qui faisait remonter sa généalogie au Compagnon du Prophète Ḏj̲ābir b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Anṣārī, il fit des études traditionnelles et, avec son père Muḥammad Amīn, se rendit dans les villes saintes du ʿIrāḳ. A Karbalāʾ, il suivit les …

(t.), ciel; Dieu. Dans les dialectes de l’est, la vocalisation est d’ordinaire palatale : čag̲h̲atāy: tengri (écrit ) et des formes analogues dans les autres dialectes. Il convient de noter les formes trisyllabiques en téleutique ( täñärä) et dans le dialecte de l’Altai ( täñäri); le dialecte tatar de Kazan présente à côté de tängri (Dieu) un mot täri = image de saint, icône (et aussi le nom propre täri-birdi où Täri signifie naturellement «Dieu»). Les dialectes og̲h̲uz (osmanh, azéri, et turkmène) ont une vocalisation non-palatale, de même que le yakoutique ( tañara) et le chouvash ( tură<…

, recueil de poésie ou de prose [voir ʿArabiyya, Īrān (litt.), Turk (litt.), Urdū (litt.), S̲h̲iʿr], registre ou bureau. Les sources ne sont pas d’accord sur l’étymologie du terme: les unes lui attribuent une origine persane, dēv «fou» ou «diable» appliqué aux secrétaires, d’autres le font ¶ venir de l’arabe dawwana «recueillir» ou «enregistrer», de là «collection de pièces ou de feuilles» (voir al-Ḳal-ḳas̲h̲andī, ṣubḥ, I, 90; LA, XVII, 23-4; al-Ṣūlī, Kuttāb, 187; al-Māwardī, al- Aḥkām al- sulṭāniyya, 175; al-Ḏj̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, Wuzarāʾ, 16-17; cf. al-Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ, 449). Cepe…

(pl. marād̲j̲iʿ-i taḳlīd, P., pour A. mard̲j̲aʿ/marād̲j̲iʿ al-taḳlīd), titre et fonction à valeur hiérarchique désignant un jurisconsulte ( mud̲j̲tahid, faḳīh) s̲h̲īʿite imāmite duodécimain qui doit être considéré de son vivant, en raison de ses qualifications et de son savoir, comme un modèle de référence, d’«imitation» ou d’«émulation» — terme de plus en plus utilisé par les auteurs d’expression anglaise — par tout fidèle s̲h̲īʿite imāmite (à l’exclusion des mud̲j̲tahids) sur tous les points de pratique et de loi religieuses. Comme dans le cas d’autres institu…

, non-Ḳurʾānic term which is used to mean on the one hand the duty of every Muslim to “promote good and forbid evil” and, on the other, the function of the person who is effectively entrusted in a town with the application of this rule in the supervision of moral behaviour and more particularly of the markets; this person entrusted with the ḥisba was called the muḥtasib . There seems to exist ¶ no text which states explicitly either the reason for the choice of this term or how the meanings mentioned above have arisen from the idea of “calculation” or “sufficiency” which is expressed by the root. i.—G…

, basic meanings: 1. Command, 2. (preparation in writing of a command) Edict, Document. Ancient Persian framānā ( fra = “fore”, Greek πρό), modern Persian farmān through dropping the ending ā and insertion of a vowel owing to the initial double consonant (still fra- in Pahlavi). In the derived verb farmūdan the ā of the stem became ū (after the third century: far-mūdan , analogous to āz-mūdan “to try”, pay-mūdan “to measure”, numūdan “to show”, etc.). In Firdawsī farmān is found with the following meanings: command, authority, will, wish, permission; and farmūdan accordingly: to comma…

( r. 1848-96), fourth ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty [ q.v.] of Persia. Born on 6 Ṣafar 1247/17 July 1831 in the village of Kuhnamīr near Tabrīz to the then Prince Muḥammad Mīrzā (later Muḥammad S̲h̲āh. r. 1834-48) and Malik D̲j̲ahān (later Mahd-i ʿUlyā: Queen Mother, d. 1873), daughter of a powerful Ḳād̲j̲ār chief, Nāṣir al-Dīn epitomised the eventual union of the contesting Ḳuwānlū and Davalū clans of the Ḳād̲j̲ār tribe. The young Crown Prince’s right of succession to the throne was not fully secured bef…

, the third ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty [ q.v.], was born on 5 January 1808. He succeeded to the throne in 1834 on the death of his grandfather Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh [ q.v.]. He was the eldest ¶ son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā [ q.v.]. His mother was the daughter of Muḥammad K̲h̲ān Beglarbegi Ḳād̲j̲ār Develu. He had two full brothers, Ḳahramān Mīrzā and Bahman Mīrzā and twenty-three half-brothers. He died on 6 S̲h̲awwāl 1264/4 September 1848 and was buried at Ḳum. His chief wife, the mother of Nāṣir al-Dīn S̲h̲āh [ q.v.], was Malik D̲j̲ahān K̲h̲ānum, whose father was Muḥammad Ḳāsim K̲h̲ān Ẓahīr al-Da…

, a Turkish dynasty which ruled in the lands of Central Asia straddling the T’ien-s̲h̲an Mountains, scil . in both Western Turkestan (Transoxania or Mā warāʾ al-Nahr) and in Eastern Turkestan (Kās̲h̲g̲h̲aria or Sin-kiang), from the 4th/10th to the early 7th/13th centuries. 1. Introductory. The name “Ilek-K̲h̲āns” or “Ilig-K̲h̲āns” stems from 19th century European numismatists. The element Ilek/Ilig (known in Hunnish, Magyar and Uyg̲h̲ur Turkish onomastic) is commonly found on the dynasty’s coins, but is by no means general. The complete phrase Ilek-K̲h̲ān/Ilig-K̲h̲ān …

1. In Arabic. Ḳaṣīda collective ḳaṣīd is the name given in Arabic to some poems of a certain length. It is derived from the root ḳaṣada , “to aim at”, for the primitive ḳaṣīda was intended to eulogize the tribe of the poet and denigrate the opposing tribes. Later it was concerned with the eulogy of a personality or a family from whom the poet was soliciting help or subsidies. Although the funerary elegy ( mart̲h̲iya or rit̲h̲āʾ ) does not seem to have been included originally under the same designation, the form of the ḳaṣīda may nevertheless be classified in this poetic genre. On the oth…

, s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ murtaḍā , despite his being rather unknown in the West, is considered to have been a S̲h̲īʿī mud̲j̲tahid whose widely-recognised religious leadership in the S̲h̲īʿī world has not yet been surpassed. He was born into a noted but financially poor clerical family of Dizfūl, in the south of Iran, in 1214/1799; his lineage went back to D̲j̲ābir b. ʿAbd Allāh Anṣārī (d. 78/697), a Companion of the Prophet. After learning the recitation of the Ḳurʾān and related primary subjects, Anṣārī…

, a stitched or bound booklet, or register, more especially an account or letter-book used in administrative offices. The word derives ultimately from the Greek διφθέρα “hide”, and hence prepared hide for writing. It was already used in ancient Greek in the sense of parchment or, more generally, writing materials. In the 5th century B.C. Herodotus (v, 58) remarks that the lonians, like certain Barbarians of his own day, had formerly written on skins, and still applied the term diphthera to papyrus rolls; in the 4th Ctesias ( in Diodorus Siculus ii, 32; cf. A. Christensen, Heltedigtning og …

, en persan «chef d’armée» et, sous sa forme arabisée, isfahsaār, iṣbasalār, titre donné, au moyen âge, aux chefs d’armée et aux officiers généraux de nombreux États du centre et de l’Est du monde islamique. Sur la composante sālār et sa provenance du persan moyen, voir sālār; le composé spāhsālār est attesté, par ailleurs, en pāzand (persan moyen transcrit du pehlevi en écriture avestique), par exemple, dans le S̲h̲kand-gumānik vičar du IXe siècle (Hiibschmann, Armenische Grammatik, 235). I. monde islamique, a l’exception de l’inde. L’ ispahsālār, en tant que chef militaire, se…

, quatrième souverain (1848-96) de la dynastie des Ḳād̲j̲ārs [ q.v.] de Perse. Né le 6 ṣafar 1247/17 juillet 1831, dans le village de Kuhnamīr, près de Tabrīz, il était le fils du prince Muḥammad Mīrzā (futur Muḥammad S̲h̲ah, 1834-48) et de Malik-Ḏj̲ahān (future Mahd-i ʿUlyā, reine mère, m. 1873) et fille d’un puissant chef ḳād̲j̲ār). Nāṣir al-dīn représentait l’union finale des clans Ḳuwānlū et Dawalū de la tribu des Ḳād̲j̲ārs. Les droits du jeune prince au trône ne furent pas pleinement assurés avant 18…

b. Malik S̲h̲āh, ʿAḍud al-Dawla Abū l-Ḥārit̲h̲ Aḥmad, malik sald̲j̲ūḳide au Ḵh̲urāsān, 490-511/1197-8, puis sultan suprême des Grands Sald̲j̲ūḳs, maître du Ḵh̲urāsān et de la Perse du Nord jusqu’à sa mort en 552/1157. Il régna donc une soixantaine d’années. Le nom de Sand̲j̲ar, qui s’applique à d’autres membres de la famille sald̲j̲ūḳide et en d’autres secteurs du monde turc, paraît signifier en turc «celui qui perce, qui enfonce»; cf. M. Th. Houtsma, Ein türkisch-arabisches Glossar, Leyde 1894, texte 29, glossaire 78, 80, et la discussion approfondie de P. Pelliot dans Oeuvres posth…

, presqu’île montagneuse de la côte orientale de la Caspienne. La partie septentrionale du Mangi̊s̲h̲lak (la presqu’île de Buzači) est une plaine couverte de marais salants; dans la partie centrale, les montagnes de Mangi̊stau s’étendent du Nord-ouest au Sud-est sur 160 km environ; elles comprennent trois chaînes: Aktau méridional et septentrional et Karatau entre les deux. Le sommet (dans le Karatau) n’a que 556 m. Au Sud des montagnes, s’étend le plateau du Mangi̊s̲h̲lak. Du côté de l’Est, la …

, Meḥmed (Muḥammad) b. Sulaymān (885?-963/1480 ?-1556) (en turc Fuzūlī), un des auteurs les plus célèbres de la littérature classique turque. Il naquit en ʿIrāḳ à l’époque de la domination des Aḳ-Ḳoyunlu, probablement à Karbalāʾ, bien que Bag̲h̲dād, Ḥilla, Nad̲j̲af, Kirkūk, Manzil et Hīt soient aussi mentionnés comme étant son lieu de naissance. On rapporte, selon une autorité incertaine, que son père fut muftī de Ḥilla, qu’il eut pour maître un certain Raḥmat Allāh, qu’il se mit à composer des ¶ poems quand il tomba amoureux de la fille de son maître, et que son goût litté…

, terme non ḳurʾānique par lequel l’usage désigne d’une part le devoir de tout Musulman d’«ordonner le bien et défendre le mal», d’autre part la fonction du personnage effectivement chargé en ville de l’application de cette règle à la police des moeurs et plus particulièrement à celle du marché — personnage qui, assumant la ḥisba, s’appelle le muḥtasib —; il ne semble pas qu’aucun texte précise explicitement ni la raison du choix de ce terme ni comment les acceptions indiquées ont été déduites de la notion de «compte» ou «suffisance» incluse dans la racine. I. — Généralités: sources, origi…

, dynastie turque qui régna, du IVe/Xe au début du VIIe/XIIIe siècle, sur les territoires de l’Asie Centrale ¶ encadrant les montagnes du T’ien-chan, c’est-à-dire dans le Turkestan occidental (Transoxiane ou Mā warāʾ al-nahr) et oriental (Kās̲h̲g̲h̲arie ou Sin-kiang). 1. — Introduction. C’est aux numismates du XIXe siècle que l’on doit la dénomination d’IlekḴh̲āns ou Ilig-Ḵh̲āns; l’élément ilek/ ilig (connu dans l’onomastique hunnique, magyare et turque uyg̲h̲ure) se retrouve couramment sur les pièces de monnaie de la dynastie, mais n’est d’aucune mani…

signifie fondamentalement: ordre, puis préparation par écrit d’un ordre, édit, document. L’ancien persan framānā (fra = devant, grec πρό) a donné le persan moderne farmān par chute de la terminaison ā et insertion d’une voyelle à cause de la double consonne initiale (encore fra-en pehlevi). Dans le verbe dérivé farmūdan, le a du thème est devenu ū (après le IIIe siècle: farmūdan, analogue à āz-mūdan «essayer», pay-mudan «mesurer», nu-mūdan «montrer», etc.). Chez Firdawsī, on rencontre farmān avec les acceptions suivantes: ordre, autorité, volonté, désir, permission, et farmūdan a…

, collectif ḳaṣīd, est le nom donné en arabe à des poèmes d’une certaine amplitude. Il viendrait de la racine ḳaṣada «tendre à», car la ḳaṣīda primitive était destinée à faire l’éloge de la tribu du poète et à dénigrer les tribus adverses. Plus tard, il s’est agi de l’éloge d’une personnalité ou d’une famille dont le poète sollicitait l’appui ou les subsides. Encore que l’élégie funèbre ( mart̲h̲iya ou rit̲h̲āʾ) ne semble pas avoir été comprise primitivement sous la même désignation, la forme de la ḳaṣīda n’en sert pas moins également de cadre à ce genre poétique. En revanche, la…

i.— Classical arabic 1) Diplomatic has reached the status of a special science in the West, and the results of such research are accessible in good manuals (like Harry Bresslau’s Handbuch der Urkundenlehre für Deutschland und Italien , 2nd. ed. 1931). Much less work has been done on Arabic documents: the material is very scattered, and not yet sufficiently collated to permit detailed research. Yet Arabic documents have aroused interest for some considerable time: a number have been published, and the editing o…

I. — Arabe classique. 1. Tandis que la diplomatique a depuis longtemps acquis en Occident le statut de science indépendante dont les résultats sont consignés dans de bons manuels (p. ex. Harry Bresslau, Handbuch der Urkundenlehre für Deutschland und Italien, 2e éd. 1931), les documents arabes n’ont été soumis que parcimonieusement à une investigation scientifique; cela découle du fait que les matériaux sont trop dispersés et insuffisamment étudiés pour permettre des recherches détaillées. Pourtant, les documents arabes ont depuis long…

(pl. k̲h̲āliṣad̲j̲āt ) as a term signifying crown lands comes into general use in Persian sources in the middle ages. It is also applied to lesser rivers, ḳanāts [ q.v.] and wells belonging to the crown. In early Islamic times the term ṣawāfī [ q.v.] is used to denote crown lands in general, while the terms ḍiyāʿ al-k̲h̲āṣṣa , ḍiyāʿ al-sulṭān and ḍiyāʿ al-k̲h̲ulafāʾ are applied to the private estates of the caliph. Under the early semi-independent dynasties which arose in Persia on the fragmentation of the caliphate, the terms k̲h̲āṣṣ and k̲h̲āṣṣa are used of the …

, a line of sayyids originally from Marʿas̲h̲ [ q.v.], whose nisba became well-known on account of their dynasty which dominated Māzandarān [ q.v.] for most of the period between 760/1358-9 and the second half of the 10th/16th century. The Ṣafawids [ q.v.] were related to them by matrimonial alliances (see Table B and below, 2). Their descendants, offspring of the various branches of the Marʿas̲h̲īs, have continued to bear this nisba by which they are generally known (see below, 3). It was also attributed over the course of the centuries to various sayyid and non- sayyid individuals. Conce…

, a verse form. 1. In Persian. In Persian, this is the shortest type of formulaic poem; its long history, the strict rules governing its use and the richness of its expression make it one of the jewels of Persian literature. It is usually but inaccurately called “quatrain” (Arabic rubāʿ , “in fours, in foursomes”; rubāʿī , composed of four parts > “quadriliteral”). In the 7th/13th century, S̲h̲ams-i Ḳays explained the Arabic appellation thus: “because, in Arabic poetry, the hazad̲j̲ metre is made up of four parts; thus, each bayt (in Persian) constructed on this metre forms two bayts in Arab…

, cahier cousu ou attaché, registre, plus spécialement livre de comptes ou de correspondances employé dans les services administratifs. Le terme dérive en dernière analyse du grec δıφθέρα «peau» et, de là, peau préparée pour recevoir des caractères écrits. Il était déjà employé en grec ancien dans le sens de parchemin ou, plus généralement, de matériaux pour écrire. Au Ve s. avant J.-C, Hérodote (V, 58) remarque que les Ioniens, comme certains Barbares contemporains, avaient, à une époque ancienne, écrit sur des peaux et appliquaient encore le terme δıφθέρα aux rouleaux de ¶ papyrus; a…

, the name of two places in Persia. I. Tihrān, a city of northern Persia. 1. Geographical position. 2. History to 1926. 3. The growth of Tihrān. (a). To ca 1870. (b). Urbanisation, monuments, cultural and socioeconomic life until the time of the Pahlavīs. (c). Since the advent of the Pahlavīs. II. Tihrān, the former name of a village or small town in the modern province of Iṣfahān. I. Tihrān, older form (in use until the earlier 20th century) Ṭihrān (Yāḳūt, Buldān , ed. Beirut, iv, 51, gives both forms, with Ṭihrān as the head word; al-Samʿānī, Ansāb , ed. Ḥaydarābād, i…

(a.), court. The subject-matter of this article is the administration of justice, and the organisation of its administration, in the Muslim countries, the office of the judge being dealt with in the art. ḳāḍī . The following topics are covered: 1. General The judicial functions of the Prophet, which had been expressly attributed to him in the Ḳurʾān (IV, 65, 105; V, 42, 48-9; XXIV, 48, 51), were taken over after his death by the first caliphs, who administered the law in person in Medina. Already under ʿUmar, the expansion of the Islami…

(pl. k̲h̲āliṣad̲j̲āt) est d’un usage général dans les sources persanes du moyen âge pour désigner les terres de la couronne; ce terme s’applique également à de petites rivières, des ḳanāts [ q.v.] et des puits appartenant à la couronne. Dans les premiers temps de l’Islam, le mot ṣawāfī [ q.v.] était employé pour les domaines de l’État en général, alors que ḍiyāʿ al-k̲h̲āṣṣa, ḍiyāʿ al-sulṭān et ḍiyāʿ al-k̲h̲ulafāʾ désignaient les propriétés privées du calife. Sous les premières dynasties semi-indépendantes qui prirent naissance en Perse au moment du démembrement du califat, k̲h̲āṣṣ et k…

sayyids originaires de Marʿas̲h̲ [ q.v] dont la nisba est devenue célèbre surtout à cause de leur dynastie qui domina la plupart du temps le Māzandarān [ q.v. de 760/1358-9 jusque dans la seconde moitié du Xe/XVIe siècle. Les Ṣafawides [ q.v.] leur sont apparentés par des alliances matrimoniales (voir Tableau B et infra, 2). Leurs descendants — et ceux qui sont issus des diverses branches de Marʿas̲h̲is — ont continué à porter cette nisba sous laquelle ils sont généralement connus ( infra, 2); elle a été aussi attribuée au cours des siècles à divers personnages sayyids ou non sayyids (infra, 3…

) est, en persan, le ¶ poème à forme fixe le plus court; sa longue histoire, les règles strictes de son emploi, la densité de son expression en font l’un des joyaux de la littérature persane. Il est couramment mais improprement nommé «quatrain» (arabe: rubāʿ, «composé de quatre parties»; rubāʿī, «quadrilitère»). Au VIIe/XIIIe siècle, S̲h̲ams-i Ḳays expliquait ainsi la dénomination arabe: «parce que, en poésie arabe, le mètre hazad̲j̲. est fait de quatre parties; ainsi, chaque bayt (en persan) construit sur ce mètre forme deux bayts en arabe» (S̲h̲ams, 115, 3-4). Cette référence …

, le nom de deux villes en Perse. I. Tihrān, une cité de la Perse septentrionale 1. Situation géographique 2. Histoire jusqu’en 1926 3. La croissance de Tihrān (a) Le développement jusqu’aux environs de 1870. (b) Urbanisation, monuments, vie culturelle et socio-économique jusqu’aux Pahlavī. (c) La ville depuis l’avènement des Pahlavī. II.Ṭihrān ancien nom d’un village ou d’une petite ville de la province actuelle d’Iṣfahān. ¶ I. Tihrān, forme ancienne utilisée jusqu’au début du XXe siècle Ṭihrān (Yāḳūt, Buldān, éd. Beyrouth, IV, 51, donne les deux formes, Ṭihrān étant la …