(a., pl. aḥzāb ) means primarily “a group, faction, a group of supporters of a man who share his ideas and are ready to defend him”, and this is why the term has been adopted in modern Arabic to mean a political party (see below); it means also “part, portion” and it is from this meaning that it has come to indicate a portion of the Ḳurʾān as well as a group of liturgical formulae. In this meaning the term is probably a borrowing from Ethiopie (see Th. Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge zur sem. Sprachw. , 59, n. 8) for, in Arabic, the verb ḥazaba means “to happen (speaking of a misfort…

, ‘political party’. The use of the word ḥizb in the sense of a political party is a recent one, dating from the beginning of the twentieth century or thereabouts, but this modern usage was in a way a natural and legitimate extension of the traditional and classical one (see preceding article). This traditional sense is the one found in the nineteenth-century dictionaries. Thus Kazimirski’s Dictionnaire (1860) defined ḥizb as a ‘troupe d’hommes’; Lane’s Lexicon (1863 et seq.) as a ‘party or company of men, assembling themselves on account of an event that has befallen them’; Bustānī’s Muḥīṭ…

[see Ḥizb (on political parties), al-milal wa’l-niḥal , ṭarīḳa ].

b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān , a Sūfī of repute, b. 833/1429, d. in Damascus S̲h̲aʿbān 919/October 1513, author of collections of prayers ( wird , ḥizb). (C. Brockelmann*) Bibliography Ibn al-ʿImād, S̲h̲ad̲h̲arāt, year 919 Brockelmann, II, 153 S II, 153.

, nicknamed Abu ’l-ʿAynayn , founder of the Dasūḳiyya order, also known as the Burhāniyya or Burhāmiyya, the ¶ followers being generally called Barāhima. Born most probably at the village of Marḳus in the G̲h̲arbiyya district of Lower Egypt in the year 633/1235 according to S̲h̲aʿrānī in Lawāḳiḥ (but 644/1246 according to Maḳrīzī in Kitāb al-Sulūk and 653/1255 according to Ḥasan b. ʿAlī S̲h̲āmma the commentator on his ḥizb ) he spent most of his life in the neighbouring village of Dasūḳ or Dusūḳ where he died at the age of 43 and was buried. His father (buried at Marḳus) was a famous local walī …

(a.), pl. waẓāʾif , literally “task, charge, impose obligation” (see Dozy, Supplément, ii, 820-1). 1. As an administrative term. In the early Islamic period, the form II verb waẓẓafa and the noun waẓīfa are used as administrative-fiscal terms with the sense of imposing a financial burden ¶ or tax, e.g. of paying the k̲h̲arād̲j̲ , ʿus̲h̲r or d̲j̲izya [ q.vv.], cf. al-Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ , 73, 193 (the waẓāʾif of the provinces of al-Urdunn, Filasṭīn, Dimas̲h̲ḳ, Ḥimṣ, etc.) and other references given in the Glossarium , 108. But as well as this loose sense, waẓīfa had a more specific one, a…

b. Aḥmad Farīd Pas̲h̲a (1284-1338/1867-1919), Egyptian nationalist politician, active in the first two decades of the 20th century. Of aristocratic Turkish birth, he had a career as a lawyer in the Ahliyya courts and then as a supporter of Muṣṭafā Kāmil Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.], leader of the nationalist opposition to the British protectorate over Egypt and founder in 1907 of the Nationalist Party ( al-Ḥizb al-Waṭanī ) [see ḥizb. i. In the Arab lands]. When Muṣṭafā Kāmil died at the beginning of 1908, Muḥammad Farīd succeeded him as leader of the party, but being by temperame…

( ca. 1796-1864) a distinguished scholar and mud̲j̲āhid of the Tid̲j̲āniyya ṭarīḳa [ q.v.] in the western Sudan. ʿUmar was born in Halwar in Futa Toro (present-day Senegal) to a modest scholarly family of the Fulbe [ q.v.] ethnic group. He was initiated into the Tid̲j̲āniyya in Mauritania by ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Nāḳil. A turning point in ʿUmar’s life was his pilgrimage to Mecca, on which he set out, according to traditions cited by Ly-Tall ( Un Islam militant, 83), in 1825. While in the Ḥid̲j̲āz (1828-30) ʿUmar was attached to Muḥammad al-G̲h̲ālī, the Tid̲j̲ānī k̲h̲alīfa …

, Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. al-Mahdī Ibn ʿAd̲j̲ība al-Ḥasanī , Moroccan Ṣūfī of S̲h̲arīfian origin, was one of the most distinguished representatives of the mystical order of the Darḳāwa [ q.v.]. He was born in 1160 or 1161/1746-7 at al-K̲h̲amīs, an important village of the And̲j̲ra tribe (Mediterranean coastal region of Morocco, between Tangier and Tetuan). Having been attracted from his childhood to devotional observance ¶ and religious learning, he studied assiduously the ‘reading’ of the Ḳurʾān, theology, holy law and philology, first with local fuḳahāʾ …

as they are locally called, are the members of a loosely and diversely organised religious confraternity or “path” ( ṭarīḳa ) which traces its spiritual heritage back to two Moroccan saints ( walīs or sayyids ) of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Sīdī Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Ḥamdus̲h̲ (d. 1131/1718-9 or 1135/1722-3), popularly called Sīdī ʿAlī and Sīdī Aḥmad Dg̲h̲ug̲h̲ī (?). Although little is known historically of the two saints, their lives, like the lives of other popular North African saints, are rich in legend. These legends stress the saints’ acqu…

(Barēlī) a district town in the Uttar Pradesh, India, situated in 28° 22′ N. and 79° and 24′ E. stands on a plateau washed by the river Rāmgangā. Population (1951): 194,679. Founded in 944/1537, the town derives its name, according to tradition, from Bās Dēō, a Barhēlā Rād̲j̲pūt by caste. It is popularly known as Bāns Bareilly, partly to distinguish it from Rāē Barēlī, the birth-place of Sayyid Aḥmad Brēlwī [ q.v.], and partly due to the proximity of a bamboo ( bāns ) jungle. During the reign of Akbar, a fort was built here to check the depredations of the Rād̲j̲pūt tribes of Ro…

(1909-77), founder and chief ideologue of the Islamic Liberation Party ( ḥizb al-taḥrīr al-islāmī ), which has striven since its formation in 1952 to establish an Islamic state and has been particularly active in Jordan. Al-Nabhānī was born near Haifa, studied at al-Azhar and the Dār al-ʿUlūm in Cairo (1927-32), then returned to Palestine, where he taught religious sciences and worked in Islamic law courts. In 1952, he sought permission from the Jordanian Interior Ministry to form the Islamic Liberation Party as a lega…

, a branch of the K̲h̲alwatiyya Ṣufī order [ q.v.] in Egypt, named after Marwān b. ʿĀbid al-Mutaʿāl (d. 1329/1911). His father, ʿĀbid al-Mutaʿāl b. ʿAbd al-Mutaʿāl (d. 1299/1881-2), had been initiated into the K̲h̲alwatiyya order by Ḥusayn al-Muṣaylihī (cf. Mubārak, K̲h̲iṭaṭ . xv, 45), a k̲h̲alīfa [ q.v.] of Muḥammad al-Ḥifnī’s disciple Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh al-S̲h̲intināwī. ʿĀbid al-Mutaʿāl later obtained al-k̲h̲ilāfa and acted as a s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ of his own K̲h̲alwatiyya order, which had not yet differentiated itself, either in name or in p…

(a.), nationalism, patriotism, civic pride, in all the modern applications of these terms. The word appeared at the end of the 19th century, in the context of the extension to the field of state politics of waṭan (pl. awṭān ) “homeland”, hitherto applied to place of birth or of residence. The noun-adjective waṭanī refers to the same sectors of meaning (autochthonous, national, patriotic), while the noun muwāṭin denotes a compatriot or fellow-citizen. A pioneering role in the inculcation of these notions is to be credited to Rifāʿa Rāfiʿ al-Ṭahṭāwī [ q.v.]. “Love of country” ( ḥubb al-waṭa…

Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. Sulaymān b. Abī bakr al-D̲j̲azūlī al-Samlālī , ¶ although both his father’s name and, still more, his grandfather’s are in dispute, according to his biographers and associates was descended from the Prophet, like all founders of religious orders. He was born and bred in the Berber tribe of D̲j̲azūla in Moroccan Sūs [ q.v.]. After having studied for a time in his native country he went to Fās and entered the madrasat al-ṣaffārīn where one can still see the room he occupied. Hardly had he returned to his tribe when he was compel…

, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz (b. Tunis 1876, d. 1 October 1944), Tunisian political figure and founder of the Liberal Constitutional Party ( al-Ḥizb al-Ḥurr al-Dustūrī ), commonly called the “Vieux-Destour” as opposed to its successor in 1934, the “Néo-Destour”. Of Algerian origin, he studied at the Zaytūna Mosque, but was early attracted to politics and journalism, and in 1896 founded a cultural weekly, Sabīl al-ras̲h̲ād , suspended a year after its first appearance. He made several journeys within the Mag̲h̲rib and to Crete, Greece and Turkey, in …

or Ṣaḥāfa (a.), the written press, journalism, the profession of the journalist ( ṣaḥāfī ). The nineteen-fifties witnessed the attainment of national independencies and major political upheavals, such as the Egyptian revolution of 23 July 1952. The Arabic press which, paradoxically, enjoyed great success during the colonial period [see d̲j̲arīda. i], despite the somewhat repressive nature of judicial regulation of the press (since what was seen was the proliferation of a press of information, of ideas and even of warfare), developed in conjunct…

(a., pl. awrād ), denotes set, supererogatory personal devotions observed at specific times, usually at least once during the day and once again at night. Abū Ḥāmid al-G̲h̲azālī (d. 505/1111 [ q.v.]), writing shortly before the establishment of formal Ṣūfī orders, designated as awrād seven divisions of the day and five of the night for the performance of devotions (both obligatory and supererogatory) by any pious Muslim ( Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn , Book X, Kitāb tartīb al-awrād wa-tafṣīl iḥyāʾ al-layl , Cairo 1358/1939, i, 339-73). The term often has referred to Ṣūfī devotions, where a wird …

(a.) “equality”, the maṣdar of form III of the verb sawiya “to be equal to, be worth”, with the same sense as form I; in modern times, it has been ¶ used for the political concept of human equality (Ottoman Turkish müsāwāt , modern Turkish mūsavat , Persian musāwāt , barābārī ). The root is found frequently in the Ḳurʾān, though only once in form III (XVIII, 95/96), in the sense “to make level, even up”. In the literary and cultural controversies of the ʿAbbāsid period, those of the S̲h̲uʿūbiyya [ q.v.], the non-Arabs seeking social equality with the ruling class of Arabs were sometimes known as the a…

(d. 1976), ephemeral Sultan of Morocco 1953-5. Muḥammad b. ʿArafa was the product of the Franco-Moroccan crisis of the early 1950s when sultan Muḥammad b. Yūsuf (after 1956, Muḥammad V) (d. 1961) defied the Protectorate authorities and openly supported the nationalists’ demand for independence. In March 1952 the sultan addressed a letter to the President of the French Republic demanding the abrogation of the protectorate treaty of 1912. The French not only rejected the sultan’s de…

(1863-1913), successful Egyptian journalist and editor of the influential newspaper daily al-Muʾayyad , which dominated the Muslim press from 1889-1913. S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ ʿAlī Yūsuf was born in the remote village of Balṣafūra in Upper Egypt, to poor parents. His father died a year after his birth, forcing his mother to move with him back to her own village of Banī ʿAdī, where he was given a traditional religious education, memorising the Ḳurʾān by the age of 12. In 1881, at the age of 18, he left for Cairo, where he enrol…

, Order ( ṭarīḳa ) of dervishes called after ʿAbd al-Ḳādir al-Ḏj̲īlānī [ q.v.]. 1.—Origin. ʿAbd al-Ḳādir (d. 561/1166) was the principal of a school ( madrasa ) of Ḥanbalī law and a ribāṭ in Bag̲h̲dād. His sermons (collected in al-Fatḥ al-Rabbānī ) were delivered sometimes in the one, sometimes in the other; both were notable institutions in the time of Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, and Yāḳūt ( Irs̲h̲ād al-Arīb , v, 274) records a bequest of books made to the former by a man who died in 572/1176-7. Both appear to have come to an end at the sack of Bag̲h̲…

1. In pre-Islamic South Arabia this term (spelt s 2ʿb in the musnad script) denotes a unit of social organisation for which there has grown up among specialists a convention of using the translation “tribe”; but this can be misleading for non-specialists. ¶ The South Arabian s 2ʿb was antithetic on one hand to the term ʿs 2 r (= Arabic ʿas̲h̲āʾir ) applied by the South Arabian sedentary communities to the nomad bedouin of central Arabia; and on the other hand, within the South Arabian sedentary culture itself, to the “house” ( byt ), a family group based on kinship …

, River and Country in Africa. The river forms the sole outlet of the great Central African basin, which is limited on the east by the western flanks of the Great Rift, on the north by the Monga mountains, on the west by the Cristal range, and on the south by the Lunda plateau. Since its tributaries drain areas both to the north and to the south of the Equator, the Congo maintains a relatively constant flow. Its waterways are broken here and there by cataracts, especially between Stanley Pool an…

(p.), lit. “the land of the rebels”, ( yāg̲h̲ī “rebel”, istān “region”) referred to different sanctuaries used by Mud̲j̲āhidūn [see mud̲j̲āhid ] against the British authorities in the 19th and early 20th centuries, in the various independent tribal areas, mainly inhabited by the Pak̲h̲tūns, in the hinterland of what became the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of British India such as the Mohmand Agency, Bunēr, Dīr, Swāt, Kohistān, Hazāra and Čamarkand (extending into the Kunār province of Afg̲h̲ānistān and Bad̲j̲…

, Sayyid Ḥasan (b. Tabrīz, 27 September 1878, d. Tehran, 28 January 1970), Persian politician and scholar of Iranian studies. 1. Life. The son of Sayyid Taḳī Urdūbādī, he received both a traditional Islamic and a modern education, including natural science and French and, to some extent, the English language. In Tabrīz he founded, with three like-minded friends, an ephemeral journal, Gand̲j̲īna-yi funūn (1903-4), and then travelled for a year in the Caucasus, Istanbul, Beirut and Egypt, returning with Western modernist ideas and sympa…

(also al-bannānī ), name of a family of Jewish converts to Islam of Fès (Fās), which from the 12th/18th century has produced a number of eminent religious scholars and still belongs, together with a few other families of Jewish extraction, to the aristocracy of Islamic learning in Fès. Its most important members are: (1) abū ʿabd allāh muḥammad b. ʿabd al-salām b. ḥamdūn (d. 1163/1750). He is considered the last great representative of the older school of Fès in which he occupies a key position, uniting in his person the main traditions of Māliki scholarship in the Mag̲h̲rib (cf. J. Berque, in R…

, Sayyid , Imāmī S̲h̲īʿī cleric and political leader in Lebanon (1928-78?). Born in Ḳum [ q.v.] into a family of religious scholars with roots in southern Lebanon and ʿIrāḳ, he studied in the madāris of his home town and at the University of Tehran where he read (secular) law. From 1954 to 1959, he pursued his studies in Nad̲j̲af [ q.v.], his principal teachers being Sayyid Muḥsin al-Ḥakīm (d. 1970) and Sayyid Abu ’l-Ḳāsim al-Ḵh̲ūʾī (d. 1992). From Nad̲j̲af he began establishing personal contacts with the Lebanese branch of his family, and in particular w…

, Aḥmad , Egyptian scholar, statesman and writer, born in the village of Barḳayn, Daḳahliyya Province, on 15 January 1872 and died in Cairo on 5 March 1963. His family were rural gentry ( aʿyān ), and both his father, al-Sayyid Abū ʿAlī, and his grandfather were ʿumdas . He was educated in the traditional kuttāb , the government school in al-Manṣūra, the Khedivial Secondary School in Cairo and the School of Law in Cairo. The most significant intellectual contacts which he made at the School of Law were with Muḥammad ʿAbduh and Ḥ…

(or darwazeh), an advocate of Arab nationalism and a prominent figure in Palestinian national struggle during the British Mandate (1917-48), was born in Nābulus in 1305/1888 to a middle-class mercantile family. The family name is derived from daraza , “to sew, stitch”, because his forefathers were tailors and braid weavers. In 1905, having graduated from high school, he joined the Ottoman civil service and was soon promoted to commissioner and deputy of the Nābulus post office. Having become disillusioned with …

, leader of the second nationalist movement in Egypt (on the first, see ʿurābī pas̲h̲a and miṣr . D.7). The son of an Egyptian army engineer, he was born in Cairo on 1 Rad̲j̲ab 1291/14 August 1874, studied at the K̲h̲edivial school of law there and after taking his examination went to study in Toulouse, where in 1894 he took his licence en droit. When still a student of 18 he began his political activity and entered into personal relations with the K̲h̲edive ʿAbbās II [ q.v.]. On his return from France, he founded in 1894 the second Egyptian national party ( al-ḥizb al-waṭanī …

, a Ṣūfī ṭarīḳa which was founded by Aḥmad al-Tid̲j̲ānī [ q.v.] in the oasis of Abī Samg̲h̲ūn in Algeria in 1196/1781-2. Aḥmad al-Tid̲j̲ānī settled in Fās in 1789, where he developed a local following and initiated into his ṭarīḳa Muslims from other parts of the Mag̲h̲rib and West Africa, through whom it spread in these regions. The papers presented at the Paris conference of 1982 on the present state of the Ṣūfī orders, which were published by A. Popovic and G. Veinstein as Les ordres mystiques dans l’Islam . Cheminements et situation actuelle , document the presen…

, appeal, invocation (addressed to God) either on behalf of another or for oneself ( li...), or else against someone ( ʿalā ...); hence: prayer of invocation, calling either for blessing, or for imprecation and cursing, connected with the Semitic idea of the effective value of the spoken word. Cf. Ḳurʾān XVII, 11: “Man prays for evil as he prays for good”.— Duʿāʾ therefore will have the general sense of personal prayer addressed to God, and can often be translated as “prayer of request”. I.—The scope and practice of duʿāʾ . 1. In the Ḳurʾān, duʿāʾ always keeps its original meaning of invo…

, Mīrzā , known also as S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Yūnus (1880-1921), Persian revolutionary and the first person to declare a republican régime in Iran. He was born into a lower middle class family of Ras̲h̲t, in the north of Iran, and studied Arabic and other religious subjects in the traditional schools in his region. He then moved to Tehran, continuing his studies in a religious school called the madrasa-yi maḥmūdiyya . His early training in traditional schools, together with his association with the Russian revolutionaries in Tiflis and Baku in 1908, p…

(Ottoman form, ʿIṣmet), b. 1884, died 1973, Turkish military commander and statesman, who served on three occasions as Prime Minister in the Turkish Republic (October 1923-November 1924; March 1925-November 1937; and November 1961-February 1965) and once as President (1938-50). He played an important part in the Turkish War of Independence (1919-12), made significant contributions to the institutional framework of the new Turkish Republican state, initiated multi-party politics in 1945, acted as…

, a branch of the S̲h̲ādhiliyya [ q.v.] Ṣūfī order named after Muḥammad b. Ḥasan b. Ḥamza Ẓāfir al-Madanī (1194-Ḏj̲umādā I 1263/1780 - April-May 1847), who was originally a muḳaddam [ q.v.] of Mawlāy Abū Aḥmad al-ʿArbī al-Darḳāwī [see darḳāwa ]. From 1240/1824-5 al-Madanī presented himself as independent head of a ṭariḳa [ q.v.] in his own right (ʿAbd al-Ḳādir Zakī, al-Nafḥa al-ʿaliyya fī awrād al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲iliyya , Cairo 1321/1903-4, 233) while retaining the essentials of S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī teaching and liturgical practice (see Muḥammad Aḥmad Sayyid Aḥmad, al-Anwār al-d̲h̲ahabiyya li ’l-…

(p.), freedom, synonymous with Arabic ḥurriyya [ q.v.]. Deriving from the Avestan word ā-zāta and the Pahlavi word āzāt (noble), the word ¶ āzādī has as long a history as Persian literature itself. It was employed by Persian writers and poets such as Firdawsī, Farruk̲h̲ī Sīstānī, Gurgānī, Rūmī, K̲h̲āḳānī, Nāṣir-i K̲h̲usraw, and Ẓahīr Fāriyābī in a variety of meanings including, for instance, choice, separation, happiness, relaxation, thanksgiving, praise, deliverance, non-slavery, and so on (see Dihk̲h̲udā, art. Āzādī , in Lug̲h̲at-nāma , ii/1, 86-7). …

, muḥammad , Moroccan statesman and writer (1907-74). Born at Fās, he was educated at the university of al-Ḳarawiyyīn [ q.v.]. From the age of 18 onwards, he took part in the diffusion throughout Morocco of the progressive movement of the Salafiyya [ q.v.], and his militant attitude in favour of local nationalist aspirations, as well as his oratorical powers, soon led the government to confine him to a house, under guard, at Tāza. He was freed in 1931 and returned to Fās, where he began to lecture at the Ḳarawiyyīn; these lectures were h…

(“Freedom and Accord Party”), also known as Entente Libérale (“Liberal Union”), Ottoman political party, formed on 21 November 1911. It succeeded a number of other liberal-conservative political parties formed after the 1908 revolution in opposition to the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) [see ittiḥād we teraḳḳī d̲j̲emʿiyeti ], including the ʿOt̲h̲mānli̊ Aḥrār Fi̊rḳasi̊ (1908), the Muʿtedil Ḥürriyetperverān Fi̊rḳasi̊ (1909), the Ahālī Fi̊rḳasi̊ (1910), and the Ḥizb-i D̲j̲edīd (1911). It advocated a policy of administrative decentraliz…

(al-D̲j̲īlānī), Prime Minister of ʿIrāḳ on four occasions in the 1930s and ¶ 1940s and for long a symbol ofʿIrāḳī resistance to British interests. He was a descendant of the famous religious leader ʿAbd al-Ḳādir al-D̲j̲īlānī [ q.v.] and a member of a cadet branch of the family which held the office of naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf [ q.v.] in Bag̲h̲dād several times in the 19th and 20th centuries (b. Bag̲h̲dād 1892, d. Beirut 1965). Ras̲h̲īd ʿAlī qualified as a lawyer and became an appeal court judge in 1921; in 1924 he became Minister of Justice in the cabi…

, a Turkish people and tribal confederation; usually also written Ḳi̊pčāḳ or Ḳifčāḳ; the forms Ḳifčāk̲h̲, K̲h̲ifs̲h̲āḳ, Ḳifs̲h̲āk̲h̲ and K̲h̲ifčāk̲h̲ are also found. The etymology of the name is uncertain: the origin of the Old Turkish word ḳi̊včaḳ ( ḳi̊bčaḳ ), which is known only in the form ḳi̊včaḳ ḳovi̊ “unlucky” (Clauson, An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 581), is conjectural, as well the connection with the Sagai word ḳi̊pčaḳ “irate, hot-tempered”. The proper name Ḳi̊pčaḳ is recorded in the Uyg̲h̲ur texts. See Radloff, Versuch eines W…

, free-thinking Islamic reform theorist, founder and spiritual leader of the religio-political lay movement al-Ik̲h̲wān al-Ḏj̲umhūriyyūn in Sudan. Born about 1909 in Rufāʿa on the Blue Nile, he grew up in a traditionally mystic-religious environment. Following graduation as a hydraulics engineer in 1936 from the Gordon Memorial College in al-Ḵh̲urṭūm (Khartoum) [ q.v.], Ṭāhā worked until 1941 for the Sudan Railway Company in ʿAṭbara. Ṭāhā’s thinking was clearly formed by both the religious nature of his home background and the intellect…

, Saʿd al-Dīn Süleymān b. Meḥmed Emīn (1719-88), Ottoman scholar and calligrapher. 1. Life. He was born in Rad̲j̲ab 1131/May 1719 in Istanbul, and died there on 22 or 23 S̲h̲awwāl 1202/27 or 28 July 1788. He came from a well-known ʿulamāʾ family. His grandfather, Meḥmed Müstaḳīm Efendi (d. 1124/1712), had occupied the post of ḳāḍī of Damascus and Edirne, while his father, Meḥmed Emīn Efendi (d. 1164/1750), only rose to the rank of a mudarris of the Sayyid Ḥasan Pas̲h̲a madrasa in Istanbul. Müstaḳim-zāde has left an autobiographical note on his education which gives a good insig…

, a town and district ( s̲h̲ahrastān ) in the modern Iranian province ( ustān ) of West Ād̲h̲arbayd̲j̲ān, situated in lat. 36° 45′ N. and long. 45° 43′ E. and lying to the south of Lake Urmia or Riḍāʾiyya. The town comes within the Mukrī region of Iranian Kurdistān, and acquired its present name in the time of Riḍā S̲h̲āh Pahlavī (1925-41). Previously, it was known as Sāwad̲j̲ or Sāwd̲j̲-Bulāḳ; accordingly, for the earlier history of the town, see sāwd̲j̲-bulāḳ . The present article deals with the post-1945 history of the town. With a population of 16,000 in 1945, 20,332 in 1956 and 44,…

(a.), Communism. 1. In the Arab world. 1. Terminology This substantive and the noun-adjective S̲h̲uyūʿī were established after the First World War to denote the ideological positions and political organisations associated with the Third International, described as “communist”, as distinct from the “socialist” Second International and the positions and organisations associated with it. References to socialism ( Is̲h̲tirākiyya ), as a theoretical basis, remain in current usage, although it tends to be qualified by “scientific”. While Is̲h̲tirākiyya has prevailed over the …

, ʿīsāwiyva , collective name (sing. ʿĪsāwī ) denoting the confraternity or “path” ( ṭarīḳa ) founded at the beginning of the 10th/16th century by S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā al-Ṣufyānī al-Muk̲h̲tārī (other ethnies—al-Miknāsī, al-Fahrī or al-Fahdī), named “the Perfect Master” ( al-S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Kāmil ). The founder. Stripped of the very abundant growth of hagiographie legend, the biography of Sīdī Ibn ʿĪsā consists merely of a number of well-established facts. Born in 842/1467-8 in Sūs or G̲h̲arb, probably of a family of Idrisid s̲h̲arīfs (though this co…

, a communal nightly liturgical ritual in which the recital of supplications for divine grace for the Prophet [see ṣalawāt ] is central. Such sessions were originally introduced as a mystical method [see ṭarīḳa ] by Nūr al-Dīn al-S̲h̲ūnī (d. 944/1537; cf. Brockelmann, II, 438, for the tides and additional details about the ṣalawāt composed by him), a s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ of ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-S̲h̲aʿrānī [ q.v.] at the mosque of Aḥmad al-Badawī in Ṭanṭā and at al-Azhar mosque in Cairo in the year 897/1491-2 (ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-S̲h̲aʿrānī, al-Ṭabaḳāt al- kubrā , Cairo 1954, …

b. Saʿīd b. ʿUt̲h̲mān Tāl , a celebrated Toucouleur conqueror who founded a short-lived kingdom in west Sudan where he imposed the Tid̲j̲ānī wird ; he was also called al-S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Murtaḍā, at the time when he was preaching. The son of the tyerno Saydu Tāl, who was a fervent Muslim, he was born in about 1797 at Halwar (Aloar on the maps), a village in Fūta Toro, 40 km. from Podor (Senegal); he belonged to the Torobe caste, of the Toucouleur race. At the age of eighteen, after considerable study of the Ḳurʾān he devoted himself to study and meditation, and then received the Tid̲j̲ānī wird of Sīdī…

C. 2. vi. The city from 1798 till the present day. The history of Cairo over the 19th and 20th centuries is primarily one of status: from being the important capital of an Ottoman province, it became the capital of independent Egypt. During the two centuries under consideration, the city experienced first of all a long period of stagnation; then, from the early 1870s, a strong political will brought an unprecedented development which pointed the way to the modern city. Some years later, the financial situa…

, son of Riḍā K̲h̲ān [ q.v.] and Tād̲j̲ al-Mulūk, daughter of Tīmūr K̲h̲ān mīr-pand̲j̲ (“brigadier”); born 26 October 1919 (his twin sister, As̲h̲raf, was born later the same day), died Cairo 27 July 1980, second and last s̲h̲āh of the Pahlawī [ q.v.] ¶ dynasty of Iran. At the coronation of his father on 25 April 1926, Muḥammad Riḍā was formally invested as Crown Prince. After primary education at a school established by his father for the sons of government officials and military officers, he was sent in 1931 to a private school in Lausa…