VIII. Monuments The first and most important of the Ottoman monuments of Istanbul is Saint Sophia. The only church to be transformed into a mosque immediately after the conquest of the city (others followed later, mostly in the reign of Bāyezīd II), it remained symbolically the model of imperial religious architecture. From the reign of Selīm II onwards, it became a place of burial reserved exclusively for the Ottoman royal family and was restored on numerous occasions between 1572-3 and 1847-9. Ottoman building activity dates from 1458, when Meḥemmed II built the mosque of …

, the capital of the Ottoman Empire from 20 Ḏj̲umādā I 857/29 May 1453 to 3 Rabīʿ II 1342/13 October 1923. In strict Ottoman usage the name is confined to the area bounded by the Golden Horn, the Marmara coast and the Wall of Theodosius, the districts of G̲h̲alaṭa, Üsküdār and Eyyūb being separate townships, each with its own ḳāḍī ; occasionally however the name is applied to this whole area. NAME. In the period of the Sald̲j̲ūḳ sultanate of Anatolia (see Kamāl al-Dīn Aḳsarāyī, Musāmarat al- ak̲h̲bār , ed. O. Turan, Ankara 1944, index at p. 344) and under the early Ottomans ( Die altosm. anon. Chroni…

-Monuments [see supplement ]

, Constantinople. 1. To the Ottoman Conquest (1453). The city, which Constantine the Great on 11 May 330 raised to be the capital of the Eastern Empire and which was called after him, was known to the Arabs as Ḳusṭanṭīniyya (in poetry also Ḳusṭanṭīna , with or without the article); the older name Byzantion ( Buzanṭiyā and various spellings) was also known to them, as well as the fact that the later Greeks, as at the present day, used to call Constantinople simply ἥ πόλις as “the city” par excellence (Masʿūdī, iii, 406 = § 1291 …

[see istanbul , mīzān ].

[see istanbul ].

[see istanbul ]. ¶

[see istanbul ].

[see istanbul ].

[see istanbul ].

[see istanbul ]

[see istanbul ].

[see Istanbul ].

[see istanbul ].

[see istanbul ].

[see istanbul ].

[see istanbul , and sikka ].

[see i̇stanbul ].

( Reşad nuri̇ Günteki̇n ), late Ottoman and modern Turkish author, born in 1889 in Istanbul, died in 1956 in London. He was the son of a military doctor, Nūrī, and Luṭfiyye, the daughter of Yawer Pas̲h̲a, governor of Erzurum. He attended Galatasaray Lycée in Istanbul and, later, the Frères High School in Izmir. After graduating from the Faculty of Letters of Istanbul University in 1912, he worked as a teacher and schoolmaster in Bursa and in several lycées in Istanbul (Vefa, Ça…

, Saʿd al-Dīn Nüzhet , modern Turkish Sadetti̇n Nüzhet Ergun , Turkish scholar and literary historian (1901-46). Born in Bursa, he was educated at the Faculty of Letters of Istanbul ¶ University and taught Turkish literature in various secondary schools in Anatolia and later in Istanbul, where he also worked as a librarian. He started his career as a scholar while he was a teacher in the Konya lycée, with a book on the folk-lore of Konya. A hard-working and prolific scholar, his works are based on first-hand research into wh…

(1886-1978), Turkish sociologist, educator and author. He was born in Istanbul in 1886, the son of a government official, Ibrāhīm Edhem, and Ḥamīde. He finished his Wefā Iʿdādisi in 1903, and continued his education in the Department of Natural Science in the Dār ül-fünūn , graduating in 1908. During the same year, he started his career as a teacher of calligraphy in the Dār ül-muʿallimīn-i ibtidāʾiyye and was sent to Europe in 1910 by the Ministry of Education to do research in pedagogy and handicrafts. After his return to Turkey in 191…

(1897-1961), Turkish statesman, educator and author. He was born, the son of a post and telegraph inspector ʿAlī Riḍā and Neyyire, the daughter of an army colonel, in Istanbul on 17 December 1897. Ḥasan ʿAlī attended the Wefaʾ Iʿdādīsi between 1911-5, and then, after military service during the First World War, graduated from Istanbul University in 1921. Until 1927, he worked as a teacher in several lycées in Izmir (Erkek Muallim Mektebi) and Istanbul (Kuleli, Istanbul Erkek, Galatasaray) where he lectured on p…

, İsmail Hakki (1893-1960), Turkish educator. He was born, the son of a peasant family, in Tataratmaca village, Silistre. He attended Kastamonu Teachers’ College and later the Istanbul Teachers’ College, graduating in 1918. He continued his educational career at the Karlsruhe State Academy for the Graphic Arts and Ettlingen Teachers’ College in Germany during 1918-19 and 1921-2. After returning to Turkey, İsmail Hakk worked in several schools both in administrative posts and as a teacher of painting, …

, the three towns, a term employed in Ottoman legal and administrative usage for Eyyūb, Galata, and Üsküdar, i.e., the three separate urban areas attached to Istanbul. Each had its own ḳāḍī, independent of the ḳādī of Istanbul, though of lower rank. Every Wednesday the ḳāḍīs of the ‘three towns’ joined the ḳāḍī of Istanbul in attending the Grand Vezir. This judicial autonomy of the three towns goes back to early Ottoman times, probably even to the conquest. The three towns also enjoyed some autonomy in police mat…

(? -1847), Turkish poetess of the first half of the 19th century. Very little is ¶ known about her life. Born in Istanbul the daughter of the ḳāḍi-ʿasker Morali̊-zāde Ḥāmid Efendi, she was educated by private tutors, particularly by her maternal uncle ʿIzzet Mollā [ q.v.], whom she eulogised in an elegy. Her short-lived marriage and her gay and unscrupulous way of life gave rise to gossip about her being a lesbian. Her poems, not particularly original, are written in a comparatively simple and unadorned style avoiding the articialities and…

, Avram , financier, philanthropist, and reformer active amongst Istanbul’s Jewish community (d. 1873). Born in Venice, he arrived in Istanbul and entered the banking business midway through the reign of Sultan Maḥmūd II (1808-39). As his influence and power increased, Camondo became the ṣarrāf (personal banker) of a number of Ottoman officials, most notably of the Grand Vizier Muṣṭafā Res̲h̲īd Pas̲h̲a, with whom he established extremely close ties. Camondo later became financial representative of the Baron Hirsch in…

(modern Turkish osman cemal kaygili), Turkish novelist, short story writer and humorous essayist (1890-1945). He was born in an Istanbul suburb outside the city walls, the son of a local grocer. He lost his parents at an early age and, after finishing the neighbourhood high school, he was trained as an army clerk and worked in various departments of the General Staff (1906-13). Following the assassination of the grand vizier Maḥmūd S̲h̲ewket Pas̲h̲a in June 1913, he was arrested together with many “…

( ʿOt̲h̲mān Nūrī ) Turkish scholar and publicist, was born in 1883 in Imrin, a village (now a district centre) in the wilāyet of Malatya. His father Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī ʿAlī, of a family of humble farmers, tried his fortune in trade and after many journeys, including one in Rumania, settled in Istanbul, where he opened a coffee-house. The little Osman, who had memorized the Ḳurʾān in the village, was brought to Istanbul in 1892 where, after attending various modern schools, he entered the Dār ül-S̲h̲afa…

, Turkish historian, b. in 1274/1857 at Diyār Bakr, d. at Istanbul 23 December 1923 (1342). An official of the financial administration, he was primarily interested in the history of the Ottoman Empire, and he took advantage of his appointment to different towns to transcribe Arabic and Turkish inscriptions, to study local history and above all to seek out old documents and historical and poetical manuscripts. In this way he built up a library of unpublished and rare manuscripts, which later enriched the National Library of Istanbul. He published the review Taʾrik̲h̲ we-Edebiyyāt …

, a secret society founded in Istanbul towards the end of 1918 by a group of former members of the Union and Progress Committee [see ittiḥād we teraḳḳī d̲j̲emʿiyyeti ]. Its aim was to organize guerilla resistance bands against the Allied forces which had occupied strategic points in Turkey following the armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. After the organization of the Nationalist Movement in Anatolia under the leadership of Muṣṭafā Kemāl Pas̲h̲a, the Karakol society supplied the movement with intel…

, tahir , Turkish author and literary critic (1916-73). The son of a naval officer, he was born in Istanbul and graduated from the Department of Turkish Studies of Istanbul University (1943). He taught Turkish literature in various high schools until 1956, when he was appointed to Galatasaray Lycée in Istanbul where he taught until his death on 19 June 1973. During the last few years of his life he was also a part-time lecturer at Boğaziçi University in Istanbul. Two leading themes of his many books and large number of articles are firstly, Turkish folk-lore, and secondly, …

(1119/1707-1192/ 1778), Ottoman S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām, was the son of the S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām Waṣṣāf ʿAbd Allāh Efendi (in office 1168/1755). After rising to be ḳādī of Galata (1163/1749-50), he was long out of office because of the influence of his father’s opponents. He became ḳāḍīʿasker of Anadolu in 1182/1768 and of Rūmeli in 1186/1773. Appointed S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām in S̲h̲awwāl 1190/December 1776, ill-health brought about his dismissal in Ḏj̲umādā II 1192/July 1778, and he died a few days later. ¶ (M. Müni̇r Aktepe) Bibliography Wāṣif, Ḥaḳāʾiḳ al-ak̲h̲bār, Istanbul 1219, i, 199 Ḏ…

(Ottoman orthography, Ṣabāḥ ul-Dīn ʿAlī), Turkish novelist and short story writer, born in Komotini [see gümüld̲j̲ine, in Suppl.], eastern Thrace (now in Greece), on 12 February 1906 or 25 February 1907, died on 2 April 1948. His father was the army Captain Ali Salahaddin and he had his elementary education in Istanbul, Çanakkale, and Edremit. His childhood in Çanakkale during World War I was to leave deep emotional traces on him; later, when the family came to Edremit, the area was under invasion and they fou…

(1824-97), one of the most important 19th-century Turkish composers, often considered the last great master of the classical style. Born at Istanbul in Eyyūb, he became an expert calligraphier under his father’s guidance, while his musical talent brought him to the attention of Ḥammāmī-zāde Ismāʿīl Dede, who accepted him as a pupil. In 1845 he entered the service of Muṣṭafā Fāḍi̊l Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.], and spent the greater part of the following 13 years with him in Cairo, returning definitively to Istanbul in 1858, when Muṣṭafā Fāḍi̊l was appointed vizier. Unfortuna…

, modern Turkish Çaylak Tevfi̇k , Turkish writer and journalist (1843-92). A self-taught man, he was born in Istanbul and became a civil servant. He started his career in Bursa and continued in Istanbul where he published the papers ʿAṣi̊r (“Century”, later renamed Leṭāʾif-i āt̲h̲ār ) and Teraḳḳi̊ (“Progress”). In February 1876 he published his best-known paper, the humorous Čaylaḳ (“The Kite”), which became his nick-name ¶ and which ceased publication in June 1877 after 162 numbers. In 1877 he went, with a delegation, to Hungary for a month and on his return …

, Ḵh̲ādim ( ca. 901-98/ ca. 1495-1589), Ottoman Grand Vizier under Sultan Murād III [ q.v.]. Ḵh̲ādim Mesīḥ made his career as one of the white ag̲h̲as in the Sultan’s private household ( Enderun [ q.v.]) at the time when their influence was still predominant in the palace. At the accession of Murād III (982/1574), he held the office of chief butler ( Ki̊lārd̲j̲i̊bas̲h̲i̊ ) He left the palace service to become Beglerbegi of Egypt. He governed that province for five years. His successful administration brought him the appointment as Third Vizier …

, Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Saʿd Allāh Efendi (1733?-1794), minor Ottoman historian. He was born at Trebizond (Trabzon), going to Istanbul as a young man. After completing his studies he found employment with the Sublime Porte. Enwerī was appointed official historian in 1182/ 1769 and retained that function, except for four short intervals, under three Sultans, Muṣṭafā III, ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd I and Selīm III. He also undertook additional duties. From 1184/1771 onwards he was Tes̲h̲rīfātd̲j̲i̊ , Ḏj̲ebed̲j̲iler Kātibi , Mewḳūfātd̲j̲i̊ , Büyük Ted̲h̲kired̲j̲i and, four times, Anadolu Muḥāsebed̲j̲is…

, Ottoman naval officer and author. A graduate of the naval college, he held various appointments, and served for a while in both the Ḥid̲j̲āz and Yemen. He died in Istanbul in 1308/1890. He was the author of a number of historical and descriptive works on Arabia, including an account of Mecca and Medina ( Mirʾāt al-Ḥaramayn , 3 vols., Istanbul 1301-6), and a history of the Wahhābīs ( Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Wahhābiyyān , Istanbul 1296). Besides these he wrote a biography of the Prophet called Maḥmūd al-Siyar (Edirne 1287). (B. Lewis) Bibliography Babinger 372-3 Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, i, 451 Ot̲h̲mānl…

(1203-62/1789-1846), a minor Ottoman poet who wrote in the first half of the 19th century, during the declining decades of the classical school. A government official in Istanbul and in the Balkans, he soon retired and devoted his life to study and writing, teaching Persian occasionally. His little dīwān (Istanbul 1262) contains poems inspired by the “Indian style” of Persian poetry. He is also the author of Sefīnet al-s̲h̲uʿarāʾ (Istanbul 1259), an expanded translation of Dawlats̲h̲āh’s Tad̲h̲kirat al-s̲h̲uʿarāʾ . (Fahi̇r İz) Bibliography D̲j̲ewdet, Taʾrīk̲h̲ 2, xii, 184 Faṭīn, Te…

(with the surname adopted in Republican times of Beyatli ), highly renowned Turkish poet and essayist, b. 2 December 1884, d. 1 November 1958. His given name was Aḥmed Āgāh, and his earliest published poems bear the name Āgāh Kemāl. He was born in Üsküb as the son of Ibrāhīm Nād̲j̲ī Beg, who was mayor of this town, and Naḳiyye K̲h̲āni̊m, the niece of the poet Lesḳofčali̊ G̲h̲ālib Beg (1828 or 29-1867). He was educated successively in Üsküb, Selānīk, Istanbul and Paris (École Libre des Sciences Politiques), and during h…

, Aḥmed (d. 1111/1699), Turkish poet of the Mewlewī order, born in Istanbul. He was the son of Meḥmed, of the Dūḳakīnzāde family. After a thorough grounding in oriental literatures he entered the service of the grand vizier Köprülüzāde Aḥmed Pas̲h̲a, but soon abandoned this easy life to enter the order of the Mewlewīs, and became a disciple of G̲h̲awt̲h̲ī Dede, the s̲h̲eyk̲h̲ of the famous Galata convent. Apart from a dīwān he is the author of many poems in Persian and Arabic and several mat̲h̲nawīs , strongly mystic in nature and terminology. (Fahi̇r İz) Bibliography The ted̲h̲kires of Sāl…

, a Turkish word meaning living or livelihood. In the Ottoman Empire it was used to denote an income provided by the state, directly or indirectly, for the support of persons in its service. The term is used principally of the military fiefs (see timar), but also applies to pay (see ʿulūfa ), salaries, and grants of various kinds in lieu of pay to officers of the central and provincial governments. It does not normally apply to tax-farms, the basis of which is purchase and not service. (B. Lewis) Bibliography Ḏj̲aʿfer Čelebi, Maḥrūse-i Istanbul fetḥnāmesi, TOEM suppl. 1331, 17 Koçi Bey Risale…

(978/1570-1034/ 1625), Ottoman S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām, was the second son of the celebrated Saʿd al-Dīn [ q.v.]. Thanks to the influence of his father, he advanced rapidly in the theological career, to become in Muḥarram 1007/August 1598 ḳāḍī of Istanbul. During his elder brother Meḥemmed’s first period in office as S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām (1010/1601-1011/1603) he was for a time ḳāḍīʿasker of Anadolu; and after two short periods as ḳāḍīʿasker of Rūmeli he was himself appointed S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām on 5 Ḏj̲umādā II 1024/2 July 1615 in succession to his brother. During his seve…

, the hairs of the Prophet. In imitation of the Prophet’s practice shaving of the hair and beard later became a sunna . According to al-Buk̲h̲ārī, during his penultimate and last pilgrimages, Muḥammad permitted people who wanted to get his hair when he was being shaved (Ahmet Zebidi Zeynüddin, Sahih-i Buhari muhtasarı tecridi sarih tercemesi , tr. Ahmed Naim-Kâmil Miras, Istanbul 1926-46, vi, 193-8, x, 442). The hairs of his head and beard, thus obtained, were preserved and later circulated in all Islamic countries. People kept this hair in a bottle, wrapped in layers of green ¶ cloth, in …

(t., from Ar. nafas “breath”), the name given to the Turkish folk religious poetry of the Bektās̲h̲ī Ṣūfī order and other ʿAlawī, S̲h̲īʿī or S̲h̲īʿītinged groups, often performed with a certain maḳām [ q.v.] or melodic musical line. Legends on the origin of the nefes connect Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Bektās̲h̲ [see bektās̲h̲iyya ] with the early 8th/14th century popular mystical poet Yūnus Emre [ q.v.], recounting that the reluctant Yūnus eventually received the nefes or inspiration of the saint, and poured forth hymns on the theme of divine love which themselves became known as nefesler …

, Ottoman historian. The only information about his life is that he worked under the sultans Maḥmūd I and Muṣṭafā III, i.e. about 1730-64. His history, called either simply ʿAbdī Taʾrīk̲h̲i , or Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Sulṭān Maḥmūd Ḵh̲ān , deals mainly with the antecedents of Patrona Ḵh̲alīl’s rebellion and with the revolution itself (1730-1) and is one of the main contemporary sources for this event. MSS are to be found in Istanbul, Esʿad Efendī, 2153 and Millet Kütübk̲h̲ānesi 409. (Fr. Babinger) Bibliography F. R. Unat, 1730 Patrona ihtilali hakkinda bir eser Abdi tarihi, Ankara 1943 Osmanli Müel…

(1204/1789-1264/1848), Ottoman official historiographer ( waḳʿa-nüwīs ) and scholar, was left in straitened circumstances by his father’s accidental death (December 1804) while on his way to take up the duties of ḳāḍī of Medina. After holding various clerical posts, in Ṣafar 1241/October 1825 he succeeded S̲h̲ānī-zāde ʿAtāʾullāh Efendi [ q.v.] as waḳʿa-nüwīs, a post he held until his death. His work Üss-i ẓafer attracted the favour of Maḥmūd II: he was ḳāḍī of the army in 1828, then ḳāḍī of Üsküdar, and was appointed editor of the official gazette Taḳwīm al-waḳāʾiʿ (see art. djarīda …

, pen-name of Muḥammad II and Maḥmūd II, further of Bāyazīd II. Gibb, History of the Ottoman Poetry , ii, 32 ff., believes that the pen name of this last was ʿAdnī, but the Upsala MS bears ʿAdlï. (Gibb, ii, 25 f. attributes the dīwān of ʿAdnī, Istanbul 1308, to Maḥmūd Pas̲h̲a.)

(? - 1175/1762), Ottoman S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām of the second half of the 18th century. On his mother’s side he was descended from Shaykh Ḥusām al-Dīn ʿUs̲h̲s̲h̲ākī, the founder of the ʿUs̲h̲s̲h̲ākiyye ṭarīḳa , who died in 1001/1592-93, and who is buried in Istanbul at Ḳāsi̊mpas̲h̲a. His father was Ḳi̊ri̊mī ʿAbd Allāh Efendi-zāde Yaḥyā Efendi, who served as ḳāḍī of G̲h̲alaṭa and subsequently of Egypt with the rank ( pāye ) of Edirne, being removed from the latter post on 1 Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 1126/8 November 1714, and eventually dying in Istanbul in …

, (1229-83/1814-67), Turkish biographer and poet, the last of the Ottoman ted̲h̲kire -writers. He was born in Drama, in Western Thrace, the son of the local notable Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī K̲h̲ālid Bey. After spending several years in Egypt, where his uncle lived, he returned to Istanbul and occupied various minor posts in government offices. His dīwān , published posthumously by his son, shows him as a mediocre poet. His main work, the K̲h̲ātimat al-as̲h̲ʿār , is the continuation of the ted̲h̲kire of Ṣafāʾī (completed in 1132/1720) and that of Sālim (completed 1134/1721) and contain…