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or rohilas, the name given to Afg̲h̲āns of various tribes who came from Rōh [ q.v.] and settled in the 11th and 12th/17th and 18th centuries in Katahr [ q.v.] (in the western part of modern Uttar Pradesh) called Rohilkhand [ q.v.] after them. Bahādur K̲h̲ān Rohilla, a noble of S̲h̲āh D̲j̲ahān (1037-68/1628-58) founded S̲h̲āhd̲j̲ahānpur; and his brother Dilīr K̲h̲ān founded S̲h̲āhābād (1664). The area began to attract Afg̲h̲ān immigrants, among them a mercenary Dāwūd K̲h̲ān (killed in 1132/1720). Dāwūd Ḵh̲ān’s adopted son ʿAlī Muḥammad Ḵh̲…

, finance minister of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar (963-1014/1556-1605). Of Indian origin, he held an appointment as mus̲h̲rif (accountant) of the Royal k̲h̲ūs̲h̲bū-k̲h̲āna (perfume department), but incurred the hostility of powerful ¶ nobles and, dismissed from that post, became dīwān (finance superintendent) at D̲j̲awnpur. After K̲h̲ān Zamān’s rebellion and death (973/1566) he served as Munʿim K̲h̲ān’s dīwān and then as bak̲h̲s̲h̲ī (paymaster of troops). After Munʿim K̲h̲an’s death (984/1576), he was again in some personal difficult…

(1142-1220/1729-1806, r. 1173-1202/1759-88, 1203-21/1788-1806), later Mug̲h̲al emperor, son of the Mug̲h̲al Emperor ʿĀlamgīr II. His original name was Mīrzā ʿAbd Allāh, the title ʿAlī Gawhar was conferred in 1168/1754, and that of S̲h̲āh ʿĀlam in 1170/1756. As a prince, he led an unsuccessful raid into Bihar in D̲j̲umādā II 1172/February 1759, and claimed the throne in 1173/1759. He was, however, unable to rule from Dihlī. Becoming an ally of S̲h̲ud̲j̲āʿ al-Dawla and Mīr Ḳāsim [ q.vv.], he shared in their defeat at Baksar (Buxar) in 1178/1764 at the hands of the Britis…

(p.), Pahlavi aswār , Old Persian asabāra -, in Muslim Indian usage sawār , “horseman”, but assigned a special technical meaning in the bureaucratic organisation of the Mug̲h̲al nobility instituted by Emperor Akbar (r. 963-1014/1556-1605). The hierarchical rank given to every noble was represented by two numbers, one designed d̲h̲āt “person” and the other sawār. The sawār rank determined the mounted retainers ( tābīnān , so spelt) and horses the manṣabdār [see manṣab ] was required to maintain. The amount sanctioned to cover the pay against the sawār. rank was termed ṭalab-i tābīnān …

or Munʿim Beg , K̲h̲ān-i K̲h̲ānān (902-83/1497-1575), a leading Tūrānī noble of the Indian Mug̲h̲al emperors Humāyūn and Akbar, was the son of Mīram Beg Andid̲j̲ānī. As a foster-brother of Bābur’s son ʿAskarī, he was counted among the important nobles of Humāyūn as early as 940/1534. Humāyūn appointed him governor of K̲h̲ōst [ q.v.] in 952/1545, and he accompanied his master on the Balk̲h̲ campaign of 956/1549. In 960/1553 he was appointed ataliḳ (principal adviser) of Akbar, and a year later of Akbar’s brother Muḥammad Ḥākim [ q.v. in Suppl.] at Kābul. In 967/1560 Akbar recalled …

, Dānis̲h̲mand K̲h̲ān, a high noble in the Mug̲h̲al Empire. A Persian by birth, he studied both rational and traditional sciences in the country of his birth. He came to India as a merchant and traded at Aḥmadnagar. He entered imperial service in 1060/1650 under S̲h̲āh D̲j̲ahān and was given the rank of 1,000/100. In 1065/1654-5 he was given the title of Dānis̲h̲mand K̲h̲ān which suggested the Emperor’s high opinion of his intellectual talents ( dānis̲h̲mand , lit. “scholar, sage”) and in 1068/1657-8 he was appointed Mīr Bak̲h̲s̲h̲ī but he resigned…

, military leader in Mug̲h̲al India. Zamāna Beg (later known as Mahābat K̲h̲ān) was the son of G̲h̲ayyūr Beg Kābulī, a Riḍawī Sayyid, who migrated from S̲h̲īrāz to Kābul during the reign of Akbar and settled there. Zamāna Beg entered the service of Akbar’s son Salīm as an aḥadī (cavalry trooper) and rose to the rank of 500. After D̲j̲ahāngīr’s accession (October 1605) he was promoted to the rank of 2,000 and given the title of Mahābat K̲h̲ān, becoming a trusted noble of that Emperor. He led a rather unsuccessful campaign…

, the central principle in the religious thought of the Mug̲h̲al Emperor Akbar (d. 1014/1605) and his counsellor Abu ’l-Faḍl, apparently ¶ developed under the influence of Ibn ʿArabī’s ideas. As a farmān of Akbar from 999/1590 (publ. in Desai, 545) puts it, the highest station of spiritual attainment is muḥabbat-i kull, absolute love, where only unity remains. A lower station is ṣulḥ-i kull or absolute peace, which constitutes a recognition of diversity and calls upon one to be benevolent to all. By 989/1581, the doctrine of ṣulḥ-i kull was dominant at Akbar’s court, as reported by…

commander and official of Mug̲h̲al India (d. 1068/1658). He was a Turk by birth and first in the employment of ʿAlī Mardān K̲h̲ān, the Persian governor of Ḳandahar. He came to India along with ʿAlī Mardān K̲h̲ān when the latter surrendered Ḳandahar to the Mug̲h̲als (1047/1638). He was appointed dīwān of the Pand̲j̲ab in 1049/1639 and of Multān in 1051/1641. His later offices were: Mīr ātis̲h̲ (1052/1645), Fawd̲j̲dār of the foot-hills of Kangra (1055/1645) and Ak̲h̲ta begi (1058/1648). When Awrangzīb was appointed Viceroy of the Deccan in 1062/1652, he was appointed Dīwān …

, the governor of a ṣūba [ q.v.] or province in the Mug̲h̲al empire, also known variously as sipāhsālār, nāẓim and ṣāḥib ṣūba . Though governors of large territories (e.g. Gud̲j̲arāt) were appointed before 989/1580, when Akbar organised the ṣūbas of his empire, a systematic form was given to the office only after this organisation. Depending upon the importance of the ṣūba, the office was one of great status, and only high nobles ( manṣabdār s [see manṣab and manṣabdār ]) were appointed to it. Akbar’s experiment of appointing co-governors was soon aban…

Muḥammad, fourth and ¶ youngest son of the Mug̲h̲al Emperor S̲h̲āh D̲j̲ahān [ q.v.], born on 25 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 1033/28 September 1624 and died 1072/1661. He was given a manṣab of 10,000/4,000 in 1048/1639, and after a year, of 10,000/7,000, being promoted in 1051/1641 to 12,000/8,000 (2,000 × 2-3h). His first important assignment came in 1052/1642 when he was appointed ṣūbadār of Multān [ q.v.]. In 1055/1645 he received the rank of 12,000/10,000 (2,000 × 2-3h). He led the Mug̲h̲al army to Balk̲h̲ and Badak̲h̲s̲h̲ān in D̲j̲umādā I 1056/June 1646, but af…

(correctly S̲h̲āh Murād), nicknamed Pahari, second son of the Mug̲h̲al Emperor Akbar [ q.v.], born on 3 Muḥarram 978/8 June 1570, died ¶ 1007/1599. Fayḍī was appointed to educate the prince. In 988/1580 Father Monserrate, and later Aquaviva, was asked to teach him Portuguese and the principles of Christianity. He seems to have impressed his Jesuit tutors. His first rank ( manṣab [ q.v.]), of 7,000 was granted in 985/1577, followed by a promotion in 982/1584 to the rank of 9,000/—. His important assignment came in 999/1590 when he was appointed governor of M…

, in full, Raḍiyyat al-Dunyā wa ’l-Dīn, female sultan of Dihlī during the period of the Slave Kings (634-8/1236-40) and daughter of the Sultan Iltutmus̲h̲ [ q.v.] by a daughter of Ḳuṭb al-Dīn Aybak. She was the only female ruler in mediaeval ¶ Islamic India, and her rule was a source of wonder to later Indo-Muslim historians. In 629/1231 she was appointed by her father Iltutmus̲h̲ to govern Dihlī whilst he was away campaigning against Gwalior [see gwāliyār ], and shortly afterwards he nominated Raḍiyya as his heir. However, when in 634/1236 he died, …

, called mak̲h̲dūm al-mulk , son of S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ S̲h̲ams al-Dīn of Sulṭānpūr (Pand̲j̲āb), a leading Indian theologian of the 10th/16th century. He studied under Mawlānā ʿAbd al-Ḳādir of Sirhind, and acquired renown as a scholar and for his command over Muslim jurisprudence, theology and history. He was held in high esteem by Huṃāyūn [ q.v.], and S̲h̲ēr S̲h̲āh (947-52/1540-5) gave him the title of Ṣadr al-Islām under Islām S̲h̲āh (952-61/1545-54) he was the principal adviser of the king in religious affairs. Upon his return in 962/1555, Humāyūn again conferred on him the title of S̲h̲ayk̲h̲…

(1000-76/1592-1666, r. 1037-68/1628-57), Mug̲h̲al emperor, son of the Emperor D̲j̲ahāngir [ q.v.] and his Rād̲j̲put wife Manmati; his personal name was K̲h̲urram, the title of S̲h̲āh D̲j̲ahān being granted to him by his father in 1025/1616. His first responsible assignment came with his appointment to the Mēwāŕ campaign in 1022/1614. He was subsequently appointed ṣūbadār of the Deccan in 1025/1616 and again in 1030/1621. In 1031/1622 he procured the murder of his elder brother K̲h̲usraw and afterwards rebelled in 1032/1623; dr…

, traditionally but dubiously derived from Arabie ṣawb , lit. a patch or track, direction, pronounced ṣūb in India; whence the term ṣūba for province coined by the Mug̲h̲al Emperor Akbar in 989/1580, when he created this territorial unit by putting a number of the existing sarkār s or territorial divisions under each ṣūba. Some of these ṣūbas like Bengal, Bihar or Gud̲j̲arāt represented historic, well-organised regions; others like Ilahabas (Allahabad) or Āgra were artificial creations. As Akbar extended his empire, the original twelve ṣūbas were augmented: Multān (with sub- ṣūba of …

, a Mug̲h̲al noble of the 10th/16th century. Persian by birth, he spent some time at Balk̲h̲ in the k̲h̲ānaḳāh of the Ṣūfī Muḥammad Zāhid, but allegedly because of his heretic views was driven away from there and forced to go to the Deccan. But there, too, his heresies drew upon him the unfavourable attention of the local rulers, leading to his flight to Mālwa, then in Akbar’s empire (984/1576-7). He was acclaimed as a great scholar by the Persian notables, and was granted audience by Akbar, whom he introduced to the doctrines of the Nuḳtawī sect founded by Maḥmūd Pasīk̲h̲ānī [see nuḳṭawiyya …

, de son nom complet Raḍiyyat al-dunyā wa-l-dīn, femme sultan de Dihlī pendant la période des Rois Esclaves (634-8/1236-40) et fille du sultan Iltutmis̲h̲ [ q.v.] par une fille de Ḳuṭb al-dīn Aybak. Elle fut la seule souveraine de l’Inde islamique médiévale, et ce phénomène a suscité l’admiration des historiens indo-musulmans postérieurs. En 629/1231 elle fut chargée par son père Iltutmis̲h̲ de gouverner Dihlī tandis qu’il était en campagne lointaine contre Gwalior [voir Gwāliyār]; peu après, il la désigna comme son héritière. Néanmoins, lorsqu’il mourut en 634/1236,…

(p.), dans l’usage islamo-indien sawār, «cavalier», assorti d’une acception technique dans l’organisation administrative de la noblesse mug̲h̲ale instituée par l’empereur Akbar (r. 963-1014/1556-1605). Le rang hiérarchique attribué à chaque membre de la noblesse était représenté par deux nombres, l’un s’appliquant au d̲h̲āt «personne», et l’autre au sawār. Le sawār déterminait le nombre de serviteurs montés ( ṭabīnān) et de chevaux que le manṣabdār [voir Manṣab] devait entretenir. Le montant fixé pour couvrir le salaire conformément au rang du sawār était appelé ṭalab-i ṭabī…

(1142-1220/1729-1806; r. 1173-1202/1759-85, 1203-21/1788-1806), un des derniers empereurs mug̲h̲als, fils de ʿĀlamgīr II. Son nom originel était Mīrzā ʿAbd Allāh; le titre de ʿAlī Gawhar lui fut conféré en 1168/1754, et celui de S̲h̲āh ʿĀlam en 1170/1756. En qualité de prince, il conduisit une expédition malheureuse dans le Bihar en d̲j̲umādā II 1172/février 1759, et revendiqua le trône en 1173/1759. Il n’était toutefois pas en mesure de gouverner à partir de Dihlī. Devenu l’allié de S̲h̲ud̲j̲āʿ al-dawla et de Mīr Ḳāsim [ q.vv.], il partagea en 1178/1764 leur défaite à Baksar…