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Farrago

(250 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] was a mixed crop (mixed mash, Mengkorn, Mischel, méteil, mistura), used for food into the 20th cent. AD, but already in antiquity relegated for the most part to use as cattle fodder; thus farrago served as green or dry fodder as well as forage for draught animals (Fest. 81 L.) and domestic animals. It consisted of the threshings of emmer ( ex recrementis farris, Plin. HN 18,142) and weed-seeds, of which many accompany this spelt-wheat; farrago could also be sown mixed with vetch seed (Varro, Rust. 1,31,5; Plin. HN 18,142). Columella had a high regard for farrago hordeacea (2,…

Gargilius

(460 words)

Author(s): Eck, Werner (Cologne) | Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] [1] Q. Coredius Gallus G. Antiquus Cos. suff. late in AD 119 His father was perhaps G. Antiquus (AE 1954, 63). Praetorian governor of the Province of Arabia, c. AD 116-118/9; cos. suff. late in 119; proconsul Asiae probably in 134/5 [1; 2. 148ff., 176]. If he is identical with M. Paccius Silvanus Q. Coredius Gallus G. Antiquus ([3. 260ff.] = AE 1991, 1576), he was either consular governor of Iudaea or of Syria. Cf. also [4]. Eck, Werner (Cologne) Bibliography 1 W. Eck, in: Chiron 12, 1982, 361 2 Id., in: Chiron 13, 1983 3 D. Gera, H. Cotton, in: IEJ 41, 1991 4 E. Dąbrowa, in…

Agrarian writers

(2,107 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] A. Greece Although there are colourful accounts of work in the fields and stock rearing in Homer's epics, especially in the similes and also in the description of the shield (Hom. Il. 18,478 ff.), Hesiod's Erga (late 8th cent. BC) is to be considered the first text that deals extensively with agricultural issues. However, it is not a synthesis of agricultural knowledge in the Archaic period but primarily a normative presentation of morality and lifestyle in the agrarian milieu in which work and industriousness pla…

Breeding, of small domestic animals

(2,225 words)

Author(s): Becker, Cornelia (Berlin) | Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] I. Ancient Orient Fowl breeding is of particular significance: domestic chickens (Gallus gallus f. domestica) were probably kept as early as about 8,000 years ago in China, certainly however in the Harappa culture in the Indus Valley (3rd millennium BC; bone finds, statuettes, vase paintings, seal depictions). In the 1st millennium BC it spread to the Mediterranean via Asia Minor.  Domestication of the greylag goose (Anser anser) can be established in Egypt in the 3rd millennium BC; perhaps geese were kept at an early…

Geoponica

(1,086 words)

Author(s): Niehoff, Johannes (Freiburg) | Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] I. Collective term for agricultural technical literature In the broader sense, G. refers to a genre of  technical literature, represented by numerous writings, which aims at a systematic representation of ‘scientific’ knowledge about all types of agriculture [1; 2; 3. 427ff.]. The spectrum of knowledge contained therein is very broad: it reaches from naïve peasant magic to speculative attempts at classifying types of soil, useful plants, and animals. Aside from the experiental knowledge,…

Horticulture

(2,122 words)

Author(s): Renger, Johannes (Berlin) | Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] I. Ancient Orient and Egypt In the kitchen gardens of the Middle East and Egypt fruit trees (principally apples, figs, pomegranates, but in Egypt also carob trees and jujube;  Pomiculture) were grown in so-called tiered cultivation in the shade provided by date palms, and below them  vegetables (especially onions and cucumber plants, pulses, leaf vegetables, such as cress, and also aromatic herbs, coriander, thyme, caraway and mint, for example). The date palms provided not only dates …

Hoe

(400 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] Although grain was grown as usual through plough cultivation, hoeing made up a considerable part of the entire year's work (Columella 2,11; 2,12,1ff.); it was often the duty of chained slaves ( servi vincti) and, in grain cultivation, was carried out in winter and for a second time in spring. The hoe was used here for various functions: instead of the plough it was utilized for breaking up the soil (κατεργασία/ katergasía, subigere) in the garden, in fruit and wine cultivation, in fields close to towns, in tilling the fields of small farmers (‘poor ma…

Iulius

(18,763 words)

Author(s): Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum) | Will, Wolfgang (Bonn) | Nadig, Peter C. (Duisburg) | Liebermann, Wolf-Lüder (Bielefeld) | Fündling, Jörg (Bonn) | Et al.
Name of an old patrician family, probably connected with the name of the god  Jupiter [1. 281; 2. 729]. The gens was one of the so-called ‘Trojan families’, who were said to have moved from Alba Longa to Rome under king Tullus Hostilius [I 4] (see below). The Iulii were prominent in the 5th and 4th cents. BC. Their connection to the family branch of the Caesares, which rose to prominence from the 3rd cent. and whose outstanding member was the dictator  Caesar (with family tree), is unclear. Caesar's adoptive son,…

Columella

(1,220 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] A. Biography L. Iunius Moderatus C. came from Gades in the Baetica (Columella 8,16,9; 7,2,4) and belonged to the ordo equester. As an inscription from Tarentum shows, C. was a tribunus militum of the legio VI Ferrata (CIL IX 235 = ILS 2923). C. lived from the late Augustan period to the principate of Vespasian (1st cent. AD). His work, which was partly written during Seneca's lifetime (Columella 3,3,3) was appraised already by Pliny (HN 8,153; 15,66; 18,70; 18,303). His language and style demonstrate a good rhetoric…

Fertilizer

(652 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] Fertilizer was used in ancient agriculture in order to preserve or improve the fertility of the soil used for cultivation; the choice of fertilization method in each case depended crucially on the social environment, economic conditions, climate, and local traditions. Even though intensive soil cultivation was seen as more important than fertilization (Cato Agr. 61,1: Quid est agrum bene colere? Bene arare. Quid secundum? Arare. Tertio? Stercorare), agrarian writers wrote about this problem at great length. It was one of the fundamental problems…

Harrow

(380 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] The verb occare (cf. also the noun occatio; Cato Agr. 33,2; Varro, Rust. 1,29,2; 1,31,1; Columella 2,12,1-6; 11,2,60; Plin. HN 18,180; 18,185), frequently used by Roman agrarian writers, is often translated as ‘to harrow’; however, it referred to work with a hoe ( rastrum). The breaking up of lumps of soil in the vineyard or on a crop field was the aim of this work (Varro, Rust. 1,31,1: occare, id est comminuere, ne sit glaeba; Columella 11,2,60: pulverationem faciunt, quam vocant rustici occationem). According to Columella, ploughing should be carried out repe…

Threshing

(767 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[German version] In Antiquity, harvested grain was prepared for storing in two steps: threshing served to extracted the grain from its husks, whereas winnowing separated the grains from chaff, straw, bad seeds or weeds. Not all kinds of grain are suitable for threshing; spelt ( far) had to be roasted and pounded. There were various methods of threshing wheats (πυρός/ pyrós, Latin triticum, siligo): the ears could be trodden out by animals (τρίβειν/ tríbein, πατεῖν/ pateîn, Latin exterere), usually cattle, or various kinds of implements could be dragged across the harvest…

Egge

(353 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[English version] Das von den röm. Agrarschriftstellern häufig verwendete Verb occare (vgl. auch das Subst. occatio; Cato agr. 33,2; Varro rust. 1,29,2; 1,31,1; Colum. 2,12,1-6; 11,2,60; Plin. nat. 18,180; 18,185) wird oft mit “eggen” übersetzt; es handelte sich aber um eine Arbeit mit der Harke ( rastrum). Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Zerkleinerung von Erdklumpen im Weingarten oder auf dem Ackerfeld (Varro rust. 1,31,1: occare, id est comminuere, ne sit glaeba; Colum. 11,2,60: pulverationem faciunt, quam vocant rustici occationem). Nach Columella sollte wiederholt und sorg…

Gargilius

(437 words)

Author(s): Eck, Werner (Köln) | Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[English version] [1] Q. Coredius Gallus G. Antiquus Cos. suff. Ende 119 n. Chr. Sein Vater war vielleicht G. Antiquus (AE 1954, 63). Praetorischer Statthalter der Provinz Arabia, ca. 116-118/9 n.Chr.; cos. suff. Ende 119; proconsul Asiae wohl 134/5 [1; 2. 148ff., 176]. Wenn er mit M. Paccius Silvanus Q. Coredius Gallus G. Antiquus identisch ist ([3. 260ff.] = AE 1991, 1576), war er entweder consularer Statthalter von Iudaea oder von Syria. Vgl. auch [4]. Eck, Werner (Köln) Bibliography 1 W. Eck, in: Chiron 12, 1982, 361 2 Ders., in: Chiron 13, 1983 3 D.Gera, H. Cotton, in: IEJ 41, 1991 4 …

Düngemittel

(630 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[English version] Die Verwendung von D. in der ant. Landwirtschaft hatte den Zweck, die Fruchtbarkeit des zum Anbau genutzten Bodens zu erhalten oder zu verbessern; welche Methoden der Düngung gewählt wurden, hing dabei entscheidend vom sozialen Milieu, von ökonomischen Bedingungen, vom Klima und von lokalen Traditionen ab. Obgleich der intensiven Bearbeitung des Bodens eine höhere Bedeutung als der Düngung beigemessen wurde (Cato agr. 61,1: Quid est agrum bene colere? Bene arare. Quid secundum? Arare. Tertio? Stercorare), widmen die Agrarschriftsteller dem Problem gee…

Dreschen, Dreschgeräte

(726 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[English version] Das Getreide wurde in der Ant. nach der Ernte in zwei Arbeitsschritten für die Lagerung vorbereitet: Das Dreschen diente dem Entkörnen der Ähren, während durch das Worfeln die Getreidekörner von der Spreu, vom Stroh, von schlechtem Korn oder Unkrautsamen getrennt wurden. Nicht alle Getreidesorten eigneten sich zum Dreschen; der Spelzweizen ( far) mußte geröstet und gestampft werden. Es gab verschiedene Methoden, Nacktweizen (πυρός, lat. triticum, siligo) zu dreschen: Die Ähren konnten durch Tiere, meist Rinder, ausgetreten werden (τρίβειν, πατεῖν, lat. exter…

Geoponika

(997 words)

Author(s): Niehoff, Johannes (Freiburg) | Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[English version] I. Sammelbegriff für landwirtschaftliche Fachliteratur Im weiteren Sinne bezeichnet man mit G. eine durch zahlreiche Schriften vertretene Gattung der Fachliteratur, die eine systematische Darstellung “wiss.” Kenntnisse über alle Arten der Landwirtschaft unternimmt [1; 2; 3. 427ff.]. Das Spektrum des darin verarbeiteten Wissens ist sehr breit: Es reicht von naiver Bauernmagie bis zu spekulativen Systematisierungsversuchen des Bodens, der Nutzpflanzen und -tiere. Da ein Teil der neben E…

Agrarschriftsteller

(2,153 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[English version] A. Griechenland Obgleich in den Epen Homers, vor allem in den Gleichnissen, aber auch in der Schildbeschreibung (Hom. Il. 18,478 ff.) die Arbeit auf dem Felde und die Viehhaltung lebendig geschildert werden, müssen die Erga des Hesiod (spätes 8. Jh. v. Chr.) als der erste griech. Text gelten, der ausführlich auf Fragen der Landwirtschaft eingeht. Es handelt sich allerdings noch nicht um eine Synthese des landwirtschaftlichen Wissens der archa. Zeit, sondern primär um eine normative Darlegung von Moral und Lebensf…

Hortikultur

(1,931 words)

Author(s): Renger, Johannes (Berlin) | Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[English version] I. Alter Orient und Ägypten In den Nutzgärten im vorderen Orient und Äg. wurden im sog. Stockwerksbau unter dem schattenspendenden Dach der Dattelpalmen Obstbäume (v.a. Apfel, Feige, Granatapfel; dazu in Äg. Johannisbrotbaum, Jujube; Obstbau) und darunter Gemüse (v.a. Zwiebel- und Gurkengewächse, Hülsenfrüchte, Blattgemüse wie Kresse, sowie Gewürzkräuter, z.B. Koriander, Thymian, Kümmel, Minze) angebaut. Die Dattelpalme lieferte nicht nur Datteln als wichtigstes Süßmittel, sondern auc…

Hacke

(367 words)

Author(s): Christmann, Eckhard (Heidelberg)
[English version] Selbst wenn Getreide wie gewöhnlich in Pflugkultur angebaut wurde, machte das Hacken einen beträchtlichen Teil der gesamten Jahresarbeit aus (Colum. 2,11; 2,12,1ff.); es war oft Aufgabe von gefesselten Sklaven ( servi vincti) und wurde im Getreidebau im Winter und ein zweites Mal im Frühjahr durchgeführt. Die H. wurde dabei in verschiedenen Funktionen verwendet: Anstelle des Pfluges wurde sie zum Umbrechen (κατεργασία, subigere) im Garten, in Obst- und Weinkulturen, auf stadtnahem Feld, im Feldbau der Kleinbauern (“Pflug des armen Mannes”;…
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