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A. Concept and ancient originsThe M. are considered to be arithmetic, geometry and algebra, but not fields of applied mathematics like geodesy or cartography. In Antiquity, they comprised the quadrivium, i.e. arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music theory. Arithmetic concerned the integers and their relationships,  but not practical calculation. At its heart was the divisibility of integers (prime numbers, perfect numbers) and the theory of proportion. The Greeks knew that there were magnitudes that lacked a common meas…