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bi ’llāh , Abū Tamīm Maʿadd b. ʿAlī al-Ẓāhir , eighth Fāṭimid caliph, born on 16 D̲j̲umada II 420/2 July 1029 (according to Idrīs, on 16 Ramaḍān/29 September), succeeded his father al-Ẓāhir [ q.v.] on 15 S̲h̲aʿbān 427/13 June 1036 and died on 18 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 487/10 January 1094, after the longest recorded reign of any Muslim ruler and one which, besides being marked by the most violent fluctuations of fortune, was of critical importance in the history of the Fāṭimid Ismāʿīlī movement. Internal history. During the childhood of al-Mustanṣir, the authority remained at fir…

founder of a line of governors of Baṣra (Āl Afrāsiyāb). He was an officer of unknown racial origin, who purchased the government of Baṣra from the local pas̲h̲a about 1021/1612. Afrāsiyāb was succeeded by his son ʿAlī in 1034/1624-5, during an attack on Baṣra by Persian forces, which failed in face of ʿAlī’s resistance. A second Persian attempt in 1038/1629 was equally unsuccessful. During the Turco-Persian struggle for Bag̲h̲dād, ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a took neither part and continued to govern his provin…

, Abū ʿUbayd Allāh , son of Abu ’l-Sad̲j̲ Dīwdād, an Eastern Iranian (not Turkish) noble from the region of Us̲h̲rūsana [ q.v.] in Transoxania. For his early career, see the article sād̲j̲ids . After his rupture with the Ṭūlūnid K̲h̲umārawayh, he returned to Bag̲h̲dād (276/889) and appears to have remained there (cf. al-Ṭabarī, iii, 2122) until his appointment as governor of Ād̲h̲arbāyd̲j̲ān in 279/892. Though on his arrival he had entertained friendly relations with the Bagratid king of Armenia, Sembat (succeeded 891), after se…

, anti-Caliph, son of al-Zubayr b. al-ʿAwwām [ q.v.], of the ʿAbd al-ʿUzza clan of Ḳurays̲h̲, and Asmāʾ [ q.v.], daughter of Abū Bakr and sister of ʿĀʾis̲h̲a. He was born at Medina twenty months after the hid̲j̲ra (c. Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 2/May 624), and killed in battle against the Syrian troops under al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲, 17 Ḏj̲umādā I or II, 73/4 Oct. or 3 Nov., 692. Some sources (Ibn Ḳutayba, Maʿārif , 116; Ibn Ḥabīb, Muḥabbar , 275; etc.) state that he was the first child born to the Muhād̲j̲irīn at Medina. The close kinship which linked him to the f…

, ḥasan b. muḥammad , Egyptian scholar of Mag̲h̲ribine origin, born in Cairo after 1180/1766. He studied at al-Azhar, and was one of the few ʿulamāʾ who, after the occupation of Egypt by Bonaparte, entered into relations with the French scholars and took an active interest in the new learning. He then spent many years in Syria and Turkey, and on his return to Egypt was employed as editor of the Official Journal ( al-Waḳāʾiʿ al-Miṣriyya ) founded by Muḥammad ʿAlī (1244/1828). In 1245/1830 he was installed as S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Azhar by Muḥammad ʿAlī, wit…

b. badr b. al-ḏj̲ahm al-sāmī , Arab poet, of Banū Sāmā b. Luʾayy, a tribe from Baḥrayn, whose claim to descent from Ḳurays̲h̲ was disputed. His father al-Ḏj̲ahm moved from Ḵh̲urāsān to Bag̲h̲dād and was appointed to various offices under al-Maʾmūn and al-Wāt̲h̲ik; the poet’s brothers also were prominent in official and literary circles. ʿAlī was born probably c. 188/804, and received his education in Bag̲h̲dād. Under al-Muʿtaṣim (218-27/833-42) he held maẓālim jurisdiction in Ḥulwān, but, perhaps because of his support of Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal in op…

, or fāmiya , the Seleucid city of Apamea on the right bank of the Orontes (ʿĀṣī), at its northward bend 25 m. N.W. of Ḥamāt. During the Syrian campaign of the Sāsānid Ḵh̲usraw I (540) it was captured and laid waste. After the Arab conquest of Syria it was colonized by tribesmen of ʿUd̲h̲ra and Baḥrāʾ. It regained importance as a fortified outpost of Aleppo only in the Ḥamdānid period and during the early Crusades. After the disintegration of the Sald̲j̲ūḳ power in Syria, Afām…

Lūṭ b. Yaḥyā b. Saʿīd b. Mik̲h̲naf al-Azdī , one of the earliest Arabic traditionists and historians, d. 157/774. He is credited in the Fihrist with 32 monographs on diverse episodes of Arab history, relating mainly to ʿIrāḳ, much of the contents of which is preserved in the chronicles of al-Balād̲h̲urī and al-Ṭabarī. The separate works which have come down to us under his name are later pseudographs. His great-grandfather Mik̲h̲naf was the leader of the ʿIrāḳī Azd on the side of ‘Alī (for him see Ibn Saʿd, vi, 22 and Naṣr b. Muzāḥim, Waḳʿat Ṣiffīn (Cairo 1365), inde…

, daughter of the caliph Abū Bakr by his wife Ḳutayla bint ʿAbd al-ʿUzzā of ʿĀmir b. Luʾayy. She was the elder half-sister of ʿĀʾis̲h̲a, and one of the early converts to Islam in Mecca. At the time of Muḥammad’s flight from Mecca with Abū Bakr, she tore her girdle in two to serve for the Prophet’s provision-bag and the strap of his water-skin; this is the traditional explanation of her nickname Ḏh̲āt al-Niṭāḳayn , "She of the Two Girdles". After the Hid̲j̲ra she was married to al-Zubayr b. al-ʿAwwām [ q.v.], and their son ʿAbd Allāh was reputedly the first child born in the Muslim com…

, properly āḳā ḵh̲ān , title applied to the Imāms of the Nizārī [ q.v.] Ismāʿīlīs. It was originally an honorary title at the court of the Ḳād̲j̲ār S̲h̲āhs of Persia, borne by Ḥasan ʿAlī S̲h̲āh, who, after the murder of his father Ḵh̲alīl Allāh in 1817, gained the favour of Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh and received the hand of one of his daughters in marriage. ¶ In consequence of intrigues at the court under the reign of Muḥammad S̲h̲āh, Ḥasan ʿAlī S̲h̲āh revolted in 1838 in Kirmān, but was defeated and fled in 1840 to Sind, where he rendered valuable services to Sir Ch.…

al-Sulamī , governor of Ḵh̲urāsān. On the first expedition of ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿĀmir [ q.v.] into Ḵh̲urāsān in 31/651-2, Ibn Ḵh̲āzim commanded the advance-guard which occupied Sarak̲h̲s. According to some accounts, he put down a rebellion led by Ḳārin in 33/653-4 and was-rewarded with the governorship of the province, but this is probably an anticipation of the events of 42/662. During Ibn ʿĀmir’s second governorship of Baṣra (41/661), Ḳays b. al-Hayt̲h̲am al-Sulamī was appointed to Ḵh̲urāsān, and ʿAbd Allāh b. Ḵ…

, S̲h̲iʿite rebel. Said to have been a donkey-driver, and afterwards a bandit, he entered the service of Yazīd b. Mazyad al-S̲h̲aybānī in Armenia, and was engaged against the Ḵh̲urramiyya [ q.v.]. Later he commanded Yazīd’s vanguard against Hart̲h̲ama in the civil war between al-Amīn and al-Maʾmūn, but subsequently changed sides and joined Hart̲h̲ama. Obtaining permission to go on pilgrimage to Mecca, he openly revolted, and after defeating the troops sent against him went to al-Raḳḳa. Here he met the ʿAlid Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm b. Ṭabāṭabā [ q.v.], whom he persuaded to go to Kūfa, …

, of the family of Balḥārit̲h̲, of the Ḳuras̲h̲ite tribe of Fihr, one of the early Meccan converts to Islām, and one of the ten Believers to whom Paradise was promised (see al-ʿAs̲h̲ara al-Mubas̲h̲s̲h̲ara ). He took part in the emigration to Abyssinia, and is said to have been distinguished for courage and unselfishness and to have been given the title of amīn by Muḥammad for that reason. He was 41 years of age at the battle of Badr, and took part in the later campaigns, distinguishing himself at Uḥud, and as the commander of severai …

(a.), literally “substitute, delegate” ( nomen agentis from n-w-b “to take the place of another”), the term applied generally to any person appointed as deputy of another in an official position. 1. In pre-modern usage. The term was used, more especially, in the Mamlūk and Dihlī Sultanates, to designate ( a) the deputy or lieutenant of the sultan, and ( b) the governors of the chief provinces. In the Mamlūk system the former, entitled nāʾib al-salṭana al-muʿaẓẓama wa-kāfil al-mamālik al-s̲h̲arīfa al-islāmiyya , was the vice-sultan proper, who administer…

, governor of Baṣra, was born in Mecca in 4/626. He belonged to the Ḳurays̲h̲ite clan of ʿAbd S̲h̲ams and was a maternal cousin of the caliph ʿUt̲h̲mān. In 29/649-50 he was appointed by ʿUt̲h̲mān to the governorship of Baṣra, in succession to Abū Mūsā al-As̲h̲ʿarī, and immediately took the field in Fārs, completing the conquest of that province by the capture of Iṣṭak̲h̲r, Darābd̲j̲ird and Ḏj̲ūr (Fīrūzābād). In 30-31/651 he advanced into Ḵh̲urāsān, defeated the Ephthalites, and occupied the whol…

, the name of a family of sayyids and scholars established at Damascus in the 11th-12th/17-18th centuries. 1. The founder of the family, murād b. ʿalī al-ḥusaynī al-buk̲h̲ārī , born 1050/1640, was the son of the naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf of Samarḳand. He travelled in his youth to India, where he was initiated into the Naḳs̲h̲bandī ṭarīḳa by S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Muḥammad Maʿṣūm al-Fārūḳī, and after extensive journeys through Persia, the Arab lands and Egypt settled in Damascus about 1081/1670. He subsequently made several visits to Mecca and Ist…

b. asad al-ḳasrī (of the Ḳasr sept of Bad̲j̲īla; not al-Ḳus̲h̲ayrī, as sometimes printed in error), governor of Ḵh̲urāsān, 106-9/724-7 and 117-20/735-8, under his brother Ḵh̲ālid b. ʿAbd Allāh [ q.v.], governor of al-ʿIrāq and the East, in the reign of His̲h̲ām b. ʿAbd al-Malik. His first period of governorship coincided with increasing pressure by Turkish forces against the Arabs in Transoxiana, which he was unable to counter effectively, although he conducted successful raids into the fringes of the Parapomisus. In 107/726…

Dīwdād ( Dēwdād̲h̲ ) b. Dīwdast , founder of the Sād̲j̲id dynasty, descended from a noble Iranian family of Ushrūsana related to its ruler, the Afs̲h̲īn [ q.v.] Ḥaydar (Ḵh̲ayd̲h̲ar) b. Kāʾus, under whose command he served in the expedition against Bābak (221-2/836-7). In 224/839 he led an expedition against the Afs̲h̲īn’s rebellious deputy Mankad̲j̲ūr in Ād̲h̲arbayd̲j̲ān. In 242/856 or 244/858 (see al-Ṭabarī, iii, 1436) he was appointed by the caliph al-Mutawakkil to the command of the Mecca Road, which he held until the …

, or ʿarafāt , plain about 21 km. (13 miles) east of Mecca, on the road to Ṭāʾif, bounded on the north by a mountain-ridge of the same name. The plain is the site of the central ceremonies of the annual Pilgrimage to Mecca; these are focussed on a conical granite hill in its N.E. corner, under 200 feet in height, and detached from the main ridge; this hill also is called ʿArafa, but more commonly Ḏj̲abal al-Raḥma (Hill of Mercy). On its eastern flank, broad stone steps (constr…

Maʿmar b. al-Mut̲h̲annā , Arabic philologist, born 110/728 in Baṣra, d. 209/824-5 (other dates also in Taʾrīk̲h̲ Bag̲h̲dād and later works). He was born a mawlā of the Ḳurays̲h̲ite clan of Taym, in the family of ʿUbayd Allāh Maʿmar (cf. Ibn Ḥazm, Ḏj̲amharat Ansāb al-ʿArab , Cairo 1948, 130); his father or grandfather came originally from Bād̲j̲arwān (near al-Raḳḳa in Mesopotamia, less probably the village of the same name in S̲h̲irwān) and was said, on dubious authority, to have been Jewish. He studied under the leadi…