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1. Negro spirituals were anonymous songs of enslaved blacks in North America (17th–19th cents.; Slavery) that commented on and gave meaning to their plight. The spirituals allowed slaves to voice weariness, patience, optimism, eventually the hope of liberation, and the role of Christian faith in a society that otherwise excluded them. As they reflected on their oppression, individual slaves raised their experience to universal application in largely improvised song. 2. The origins of spirituals are complex. Based on African vocal and instrumental music, they were…

The primary musicians of the church are the faithful gathered for worship, and only by extension also choirs, soloists, and instrumentalists. The church, understood in the NT as a charismatic community (1 Corinthians 12–14; Col. 3:16; Eph. 5:15–20), manifests its praise and thanksgiving to God in “psalms and hymns and spiritual songs.” Such doxological offerings are the common “sacrifice of praise” (Heb. 13:15) of the universal priesthood. Early Christian communities continued familiar prayer traditions, incorporating psalms and canticles while compo…

Musical settings of the gospel passion narratives fulfill the liturgical demands of Holy Week liturgies (Church Year; Liturgy). The earliest extant settings from the fifth century are not tour de force compositions but solo works consisting of “only a normal rendition of a special set of plain-song formulas” (E. Wienandt, 113). Such formulas assigned the lowest range to Christ’s words, the mid-range to the evangelist (narrator), and the upper range to all other individuals or groups ( turba, Lat. “crowd”). This convention has generally been observed ever since. The earliest polyph…

1. Perspective J. S. Bach (1685–1750), describing the art of figured bass, suggested that it and all music should glorify God and recreate the mind, otherwise there is no music, only “a devilish hubbub.” According to M. Luther (1483–1546), music, understood properly, serves to proclaim the good news of God in Christ. As such, it is an ancilla (handmaiden), subordinate to the Word. Moreover, because of the ability of music to address and express suprarational thoughts, attitudes, and emotions related to communion with God, it serves as a vehicle for faith and piety. 2. History Early Christ…

The organ is a keyboard instrument that produces sound by forcing air through flue and reed pipes (pipe organ), over metal reeds (harmonium), by electromagnetic pulses (Hammond Organ), or by computer-analyzed electronics. Prototypes include the water-driven hydraulus, as well as the bellows-driven portative (easily transported), positive (larger, often stationary), and regal (reed instrument). We also have composite, multimanual, and pedal instruments consisting of several positives and pedal divisions. 1. The Pipe Organ Since the invention of the pipe organ in 250 …

The Stabat Mater Dolorosa (lit. “the sorrowful mother was standing,” from the first line) is a sequence hymn focusing on Jesus’ passion from the Virgin Mary’s perspective. This hymn, composed in the 13th century by Jacopone da Todi (d. 1306) for the Feast of Our Lady of Sorrows (September 15), expands upon the verse “… and a sword will pierce through your own soul” (Luke 2:35a RSV) in 20 strophes. Mary’s anguish yet steadfastness at the crucifixion serves as a model for the Christian (Mariology). The sequence was first developed in the 9th century to be sung after mass readings …

An oratorio is a multisectional, accompanied choral work (Choir) presenting a dramatic situation, usually religious, without staging or costumes. It includes a narrator (who reads the testo, “text”), soloists representing characters or virtues, and choruses reflecting on the drama. Accompaniments range from continuo (organ/harpsichord) to full orchestra. La rappresentazione di anima e di corpo (Representation of soul and body, 1600), by E. de’ Cavalieri (ca. 1550–1602), is considered the first oratorio; the term itself appeared in 1640. The roots of the oratorio are med…