Search

Die U. (kroat. für »Flüchtlinge«, abgeleitet vom Verb für »(hin)einspringen«) waren eine kath. Volksgruppe im nördl. Balkan. Sie waren ihrer Herkunft nach Flüchtlinge aus den von der osman. Expansion betroffenen ehemals christl. Balkangebieten. Sie zählten in der Frühen Nz. zu den Gruppen, die – vergleichbar den Freibeutern – z. T. im Auftrag einer Staatsmacht Menschenraub betrieben und ihre Opfer (wie diejenigen von Kriegsgefangenschaft und Piraterie) der Zwangsmigration aussetzten. Die Gefangenen wurden dabei entweder gegen ein Lösegeld repatriiert oder in …

1. BegriffIn der Nz. etablierten Migranten (Mobilität; Einwanderung; Emigration; Siedlungsmigration) häufig ihre eigenen Religionsgemeinschaften, v. a. dann, wenn ihre Glaubensausrichtung in ihrem neuen Siedlungsgebiet nicht institutionell vertreten war. Auch wenn es entsprechende Institutionen gab, zogen sie es aufgrund von Sprache und persönlicher Vertrautheit häufig vor, bei der Ausübung ihrer Religion unter sich zu bleiben. Beispiele für den letzteren Fall sind die dt. kath. Kirche in Rom [7] und die protest. Kirchen der franz.sprachigen Wallonen in den N…

1. DefinitionUnter E. (Immigration, Zuwanderung) versteht man die Niederlassung von Personen oder Gruppen an einem neuen Wohnort. Während E. im modernen Sprachgebrauch in der Regel auf das Überschreiten von Staatsgrenzen verweist, hat der Begriff in der Frühen Nz. v. a. lokale Bedeutung. Dabei ist zwischen der E. in Städte und in ländliche Regionen zu unterscheiden. Im nzl. Europa war geographische Mobilität eng mit Prozessen der Urbanisierung verbunden. Die unterschiedlichen Migrationsmuster wie auch deren geographische, soziale und geschlechtsspezifische Aspek…

1. MarktzentrenDie Sklaverei und damit auch das Phänomen der S. waren in der europ. Nz. weit verbreitet, v. a. in Süd- und Südosteuropa noch bis ins 19. Jh. [2]. Eine große Zahl von Sklavenverschleppungen nach und aus Europa wurde über Märkte in Zentralasien (Karakorum, Sarai, Nowgorod) abgewickelt. Im Folgenden geht es aber vorwiegend um die S. innerhalb Europas (zur globalen Interaktion vgl. Sklaverei).Im Südwesten war Lagos an der portug. Algarve der erste Umschlagplatz, an dem ab 1444 westafrikan. Sklaven aus Guinea, Benin und später aus dem Kongo an portug. Kunden verkauft…

In Westeuropa ist schon in der Periode vom 11. bis zum 13. Jh. eine starke Zunahme der Mobilität agrarischer Bevölkerungsgruppen zu erkennen, die sich in zwei Formen vollzog. Zum einen führte die wachsende Produktivität der Landwirtschaft zu einer Welle von Neugründungen von Städten und zur raschen Bevölkerungszunahme bereits bestehender Städte (Urbanisierung; Land-Stadt-Wanderung). Dieses Wachstum beruhte v. a. auf der Zuwanderung von Dorfbewohnern, die in den Städten größere persönliche Freiheit und eine Befreiung von feudalen Verpflicht…

1. Definition Wanderarbeiter (= W.er) verkörperten in der Nz. einen Typus mobiler Arbeitskräfte, die aufgrund freier und primär wirtschaftlich motivierter Entscheidung vorübergehend an einem anderen Ort als ihrem ständigen Wohnsitz tätig waren, meist kürzer als ein Jahr (Arbeitsmigration). Ihre temporäre Migration erforderte spezifische Regelungen mit den zurückbleibenden Haushaltsangehörigen, mit den Mitwanderern, manchmal mit der gesamten (ländlichen) Herkunftsgemeinde. Die Wandersaison in der Landwirtschaft (v. a. in Ernte-Zeiten) wie auch in jenen Gew…

1. Concept Migrants (Mobility; Immigration; Emigration; Settler migration, European) in early modern Europe often established their own religious communities, especially when their religion was not institutionally represented in the area of settlement. Even if it was, many immigrants still preferred to worship among themselves, for reasons of familiarity and language. Examples of the latter case include the German Catholic Church in Rome [7] and the Protestant Walloon churches of the French-speaking migrants in the Netherlands, German states, and British…

1. OverviewIn contrast to permanent migrants, temporary migrants aim to return after an absence from home. Within this category in the early modern period we can distinguish two types of migrant: those whose work required them to be away for several years and those who were absent for only a portion of the year and spent the rest doing work on their own farms – usually as smallholders or sub-peasants. This article discusses the first category; on the second, see Occupational migration; Seasonal l…

The Russian otkhodniki (literally “departers”) in the context of serfdom (which was legally abolished in Russia only in 1861) denoted people who were allowed to leave the estate to which they were bound for a fixed period (generally between one and four months), to work elsewhere. Their lord issued them with a pass to this effect [4. 335]. Although serfdom as such presented an impediment to geographical mobility, this time-limited form of migration constituted an exception (cf. Serfdom 4.). Various forms of peasant bondage in Russia from the la…

1. Definition Migrant laborers in the early modern period were a type of mobile workforce that, voluntarily and for primarily economic reasons, took up temporary work (usually for less than one year) at a place other than their normal abode (Occupational migration). Their temporary migration  necessitated specific arrangements with the other members of their household, with their co-workers, and sometimes with the entire rural community from which they came. The migration season in agri…

1. Introduction Slavery and the associated forced movement of people, either through slave markets or by direct sale to states or employers, was a widespread phenomenon in the Middle Ages, especially in Eastern and Southern Europe [8]; [4]. The Roman Catholic Church, however, was a fierce opponent, and prevented the spread of the practice in Italy and Spain in the 11th century (apart from ransom slavery between Muslims and Christians). This changed in the 14th century, when the Black Death caused a significant increase in labo…

1. Definition and basicsThe term transhumance was coined in 1892 by the French geographer Jean-François Bladé (see Turkish  yaylag/ yaylak). In Western anthropology, it stands for a specific type of pastoral farming and a lifestyle based on it. It denotes a variant of occupational migration and animal husbandry, of non-sedentary pastoral economy [3. 22–23]; [4. 23], subdivided into nomadism, transhumance, and Alpine economy. Each type has a specific corresponding form of migration. Highly specialized stock farming with indoor shelter in winter…

1. ConceptEmigration is a form of mobility that takes place by voluntary decision (unlike abduction [Slave abduction] or forced migration) and for primarily economic reasons (unlike conscientious refugee movements; cf. Refugees of conscience; Exile), and in which the migrant or emigré intends to settle elsewhere permanently (unlike occupational migration). Depending on destination, distinctions can be drawn between migrations from Europe to other continents (including colonial migration; Immigrat…

The press gang was an early modern form of military recruitment, in which free men were taken by force to serve in the navy. It amounted to a form of forced migration and long-term temporary migration.The system emerged as mercenary armies were replaced by standing armies, which took place between around 1650 and 1800 (Army reforms). Most soldiers and sailors on naval vessels in early modern European standing armed forces were recruited as free individuals (or in groups) for a specified term. In states like Sweden from the 17t…

1. Definition Occupational migration is a form of mobility in whichmigrants pursue the freely chosen aim (in contrast to forced migration) of working temporarily (in contrast to permanent emigration) in a different place. This aim is primarily economically motivated (in contrast to refugees of conscience). As a rule, the migrants do not intend to work steadily for several years, like soldiers, sailors, domestics, and many journeymen (Temporary migration) but for relatively short periods…

1. Definition and prevalenceSerfdom has been defined as the “personal dependence of an individual on another individual under the feudal system” [7. 1761] (Feudal society). For jurists in the first centuries of the early modern period, the prohibition against leaving the seigneur’s territory was the central criterion that distinguished serfdom from personal freedom (Soil bondage) [5. 210]. In Marxist presentations, serfdom has been elevated to an epochal term (the “second serfdom” or refeudalization in contrast to the “first serfdom,” medieval b…

Mobility among agrarian population groups in Western Europe was already increasing considerably between the 11th and 13th centuries, and the process took two forms. Growing agricultural productivity led to the establishment of a wave of new towns and rapid population increase in existing ones (Urbanization; Urban migration). This growth depended mostly on inward migration by former inhabitants of villages hoping for more personal freedom and relief from feudal obligations (…

1. UrbanizationIn the first part of the early modern period in Europe, towns had an extraordinary attraction for migrants, primarily for economic reasons (see 2. below). In the course of urbanization beginning in 1500, their population grew both relatively and absolutely; until well into the 18th century, they also had a high mortality rate, so that constant immigration was necessary to keep the population stable.Although towns were growing everywhere in Europe, urbanization was highly uneven both chronologically and geographically (see Population,…

1. Introduction 1.1. History of scholarshipUntil the 1980s, the subject of geographical mobility was of little interest to historians of the early modern period. It was generally assumed that societies before 1800 were reasonably spatially stable and that migration was an exceptional phenomenon. It was believed that people only became mobile when left with no other choice, for example as a result of wars, famine, natural catastrophes, or severe political or religious oppression. This explains why ref…

1. Introduction The expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, which culminated in the taking of Constantinople in 1453, was closely associated with the process of developing the military. One of the important innovations here was the creation of a standing army. While most early modern states relied almost entirely on mercenaries hired for short periods, the Ottomans created a permanent armed force. One of its most important and most-feared divisions was the Janissaries (Turkish: yeniçeri, “new soldier”), an elite guard of the sultan. Its members were fo…