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i. In Persian tradition and folk belief. ii. Domestication in Iran. A version of this article is available in print Volume VII, Fascicle 5, pp. 495-498 DONKEY i. In Persian tradition and folk belief The donkey ( Equus hydrunitinus, Equus asinus asinus, etc.; Pers. ḵar, darāz-gāš), domesticated species descended from the wild ass ( Equus africanus; Uerpmann), probably first bred in captivity in Egypt and western Asia, where by 2500 B.C.E. the domesticated donkey was in use as a beast of burden (Clutton-Brock, p. 65). Because of its jolting gait, it w…

a collection of didactic animal fables, with the jackals Kalila and Demna as two of the principal characters. The story cycle originated in India between 500 BCE and 100 BC, and circulated widely in the Near East. A version of this article is available in print Volume XV, Fascicle 4, pp. 386-397 KALILA WA DEMNA i. Redactions and circulation In Persian literature Kalila wa Demna has been known in different versions since the 6th century CE. The complex relations between the extant New Persian versions, a lost Sanskrit original, and a lost Middle Persian trans…

the name of the ancestor of the Gōdarziān clan of heroes in the Šāh-nāma. A version of this article is available in print Volume XVI, Fascicle 2, pp. 118-119 KAŠVĀD, the name of the ancestor of the Gōdarziān clan (q.v.) of heroes in the Šāh-nāma. Based on Ṭabari’s rendition of his name as Jašvād (Ṭabari, I, pp. 608, 617-18), Theodor Nöldeke suggested that the correct form of this name must be Gašvād, with an initial “g” rather than “k” (Nöldeke, tr., p. 17, n.1). Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh, however, rejects this view and argues that, since t…

(chiromancy or palmistry; Pers. Kaf-bini), a form of physiognomy that deduces personal characteristics from the form of the lines on the subject’s palm. PALM READING (chiromancy or palmistry; Pers. Kaf-bini), a form of physiognomy that deduces personal characteristics from the form of the lines on the subject’s palm. The Persian term kaf- bini is a compound made of the words kaf, “palm,” and bini (from the infinitive didan), “looking into.” In general, it is not used for divining the future, although one of the lines on the palm, called ḵaṭṭ-e ʿomr, “longevity line,” is associated wi…

Duzaḵ and jahannam are the terms commonly used in Persian for hell. HELL ii. Islamic Period Duzaḵ (Mid. Pers. dušox, Av. dušaŋhu; AirWb., col. 756) and jahannam are the terms commonly used in Persian for hell. Various lexicographers record the forms duzaḵ, saqar, merzḡān, marzaḡan, damandān, jaḥim, and saʿir in the sense of hell. The rare forms dužaḵ (Rawāqi, pp. 19, 80) and darvazaḵ (drwzḵ) have also been reported (Moḥammad b. Monawwar, I, pp. 208, 278, II, p. 570). The most common form of the word in Persian is the loanword from Arabic, jahannam, which is of Hebrew origin (Hebrew gēhinnūm), …

prominent scholar of Persian literature, essayist, translator, university teacher, and one of the founders of the discipline of folklore in Iran. MAHJUB, MOHAMMAD JAFAR (Moḥammad Jaʿfar Maḥjub, b. Tehran, 1 Šahrivar 1303 Š./23 August 1924; d. Los Angeles, 27 Bahman 1374 Š./17 February 1996) prominent scholar of Persian literature, essayist, translator, university teacher, and one of the founders of the discipline of folklore in Iran (FIGURE 1). LIFE Although Mahjub’s given name was Moḥammad Jaʿfar, his family called him by the nickname, Amir. His father, ʿAli Ak…

the name of a heroic blacksmith in the Šāhnāma who rebels against the tyrant Żaḥḥāk and helps Ferēdun wrest the kingdom from him. A version of this article is available in print Volume XVI, Fascicle 2, pp. 130-132 KĀVA, the name of a heroic blacksmith in the Šāhnāma who rebels against the tyrant Żaḥḥāk and helps Ferēdun wrest the kingdom from him. Kāva appears in the narrative when Żaḥḥāk is set on forcing his subjects to testify to his good rule by signing an official document to that effect. At this moment the blacksmith walks into the roy…

(the treasure brought by the wind), name of one of the eight treasures of the Sasanian Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 591-628 C.E.) according to most Persian sources. A version of this article is available in print Volume X, Fascicle 3, pp. 280-281 GANJ-E BĀDĀVARD (the treasure brought by the wind), name of one of the eight treasures of the Sasanian Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 591-628 C.E.) according to most Persian sources. The Šāh-nāma, however, mentions it also among the riches of a much earlier king, the Kayanid Kay Ḵosrow (ed. Khaleghi, IV, p. 351, v. 2825; Bondārī, I, p. 303).…

lit. “[possessing] steel armor,” the name of a hideous demon in the story of Amīr Arsalān. A version of this article is available in print Volume X, Fascicle 3, pp. 227 FŪLĀD-ZEREH “[possessing]steel armor,” is the name of a hideous demon in the story of Amīr Arsalān (q.v.). This name was probably borrowed by the author of the story from an older prose epic, Romūz-e Ḥamza (see Mahjūb’s introduction in Naqīb-al-Mamālek, p. lxi). Fūlād-zereh was a huge horned afreet ( ʿefrīt) of great physical and magical power, capable of flight, and fond of beautiful women, whom he spotted …

a prominent type of traditional folk entertainer, who appears as a street performer in the days preceding Nowruz. The Ḥāji Firuz entertains passers-by by singing traditional songs and dancing and playing his tambourine for a few coins. A version of this article is available in print Volume XI, Fascicle 5, pp. 551-552 ḤĀJI FIRUZ, the most famous among the traditional folk entertainers, who appears in the Persian streets in the days preceding Nowruz (Figure 1). The Ḥāji Firuz entertains passers-by by singing traditional songs and dancing and playing…

the epitome of generosity and munificence in Arabic and Persian anecdotal traditions. A version of this article is available in print Volume XII, Fascicle 1, pp. 57-58 ḤĀTEM ṬĀʾI, the epitome of generosity and munificence in Arabic and Persian anecdotal traditions. Ḥātem b. ʿAbd-Allāh b. Saʿd Abu Saffāna (or Abu ʿAdiy) Ṭāʾi (Ebn ʿAbd-Rabbeh, I, p. 197; Waṭwāṭ, p. 65) is the most renowned of the so-called “three most generous men of pre-Islamic Arabia” (Ebn ʿAbd-Rabbeh), I, p. 197). He is said to have inherited his generosi…

(1903-1977), an Iranian teacher, editor, translator, and literary scholar. MINOVI, MOJTABA (Mojtabā Minovi, b. Tehran, 19 Bahman 1282 Š./9 February 1903; d. Tehran, 6 Bahman, 1355 Š./26 January 1977), teacher, editor, translator, and literary scholar (FIGURE 1). LIFE The eldest of twelve siblings, Mojtabā Minovi was born into a family of religious scholars that traced its lineage to one of the influential mojtaheds of the Qājār period, most probably Šariʿatmadār-e Esterābādi (Yaḡmāʾi, p. 60). His pedigree is given as Mojtabā Minovi,…

name of a category of supernatural beings believed to have been created from smokeless fire and to be living invisibly side-by-side the visible creation. A version of this article is available in print Volume X, Fascicle 4, pp. 418-422 GENIE (Ar. andPers. jenn; incorrect plural, ajenna, used in Persian), name of a cathegory of supernatural beings believed to have been created from smokeless fire (Koran 55:14; El-Shamy, Motif A2905.1, “Jinn created from fire”) and to be living invisibly side-by-side the visible creation. They are repeatedly mentioned in the Koran, where chapter 72 ( Sūra…

(qabrestān, gūrestān) in Persian folklore; cemeteries are found both inside and outside cities and villages, usually close to a holy shrine, or emāmzāda, in order to partake of its blessing. A version of this article is available in print Volume V, Fascicle 2, pp. 125-129 CEMETERIES ( qabrestān, gūrestān) in Persian folklore. Cemeteries are found both inside and outside cities and villages, usually close to a holy shrine, or emāmzāda, in order to partake of its blessing. Throughout Persian history we are told that the bodies of the dead are brought to their home towns (see, e.g., Šāh-nāma, …

monkeys. Other names: meymūn (common), ʿ antar (vulgar), kappī (Mid. Pers. k abīg, from Indian kapi). Two myths of the creation of monkeys exist in the Zoroastrian literature. A version of this article is available in print Volume IV, Fascicle 6, pp. 586-587 BŪZĪNA, monkeys. Other names for monkeys are: meymūn (common), ʿantar (vulgar), kappī (Mid. Pers. kabīg, borrowed from Indian kapí, Mayrhofer, Dictionary I, p. 157), also būzana, abūzīna, būzanīna. Two myths of the creation of monkeys exist in the Zoroastrian literature. According to the first myth, monkeys are…

Cats are not mentioned in literary Persian sources until late Sasanian times. In Zoroastrian mythology the cat ( gurbag) is said to have been created by the Evil Spirit, and in the Pahlavi texts it is classed in the much despised “wolf species.” A version of this article is available in print Volume V, Fascicle 1, pp. 74-77 CAT (Khot. susi; Buddh. So. mwškyščh “wild cat,” Man. So. mwškyč, mwškyṇčh; Cl. Pers. pōšak, Pers. gorba, pūšak; Pashto pīšō; in the local dialects pīšī, mālī, nāzū, etc., see, e.g., Christensen, Contributions I, p. 183; II, p. 287). Cats are not mentioned in literary P…

demon, monster, fiend; expresses not only the idea of “demon,” but also that of “ogre,” “giant,” and even “Satan.” A version of this article is available in print Volume VII, Fascicle 4, pp. 428-431 DĪV (demon, monster, fiend), often confused with ḡūl (orge, ghoul) and jinn in both folk and literary traditions (Massé, Croyances, pp. 352-53; Qazvīnī, pp. 383-95), expresses not only the idea of “demon,” but also that of “ogre,” “giant,” and even “Satan.” The translators of Ṭabarī’s commentary render the Arabic eblīs, (Satan) as dīv (I, p. 32, II, pp. 307, 446, 461, 471, 543, III, p…

(also čerāḡān, čerāḡbānī, čerāḡbārān), the decoration of buildings and open spaces with lights during festivals and on occasions like weddings, coronations, royal birthdays, circumcision ceremonies, and so on. A version of this article is available in print Volume V, Fascicle 3, pp. 264-265 ČERĀḠĀNĪ (also čerāḡān, čerāḡbānī, čerāḡbārān), the decoration of buildings and open spaces with lights during festivals and on occasions like weddings, coronations, royal birthdays, circumcision ceremonies, and so on. It may have originated in the tradit…

(Pers.-Ar. šamʿ); the Arabic word literally means “beeswax." A version of this article is available in print Volume IV, Fascicle 7, pp. 748-751 i. Making and Uses Candles are a relatively late invention in human history. Egyptologists sometimes refer to candles and candlesticks, but the candles they describe are more properly torches or torch holders or lamps (Robins, pp. 16, 20). Similarly, the seven-branched candlestick of the Old Testament was not a candleholder but a group of lamps using olive oil for fuel (Robins, p.…

This series of articles covers children and child-rearing in Iran and Iranian lands. A version of this article is available in print Volume V, Fascicle 4, pp. 403-423 CHILDREN i. Childbirth in Zoroastrianism The Zoroastrian community has traditionally regarded marriage as having a threefold function: to propagate the human race, to spread the Zoroastrian faith, and to contribute to the victory of the good cause (Sanjana, p. 508). The birth of a child is viewed as of intrinsic benefit to the whole community because it furthers e…