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1. Introduction An avalanche is a rapidly sliding or falling mass of snow - sometimes ice - that detaches from a steep, unforested slope and descends to the valley. The phenome…

1. Introduction 1.1. The geotectonic causes of earthquakesEarthquakes are expressions of ongoing tectonic processes that are caused by sudden releases of pressure. They can be classified by location, either as intraplate disturbances on faults like the Rhine Rift Valley, or as interplate earthquakes, where two tectonic plates meet and subduct, or by depth, as shallow-focus or deep-focus quakes. Most damage is done by relatively weak but shallow earthquakes. Along faults, visible slippages of several meters can occur.…

1. IntroductionA natural catastrophe is generally defined as an extreme event of natural origin that has a direct and destructive impact on people and areas of human settlement. Three basic types are distinguished by cause:(1) Geotectonic natural events. These include, primarily, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, and consequent  mass-wasting events (landslides, rock falls, mudslides, avalanches, etc.) triggered by tremors in the earth’s crust.(2) Extreme natural events caused by short, medium, and long-term weather phenomena. Sudden or persistent heavy rain can cause extreme flow events in inland rivers, and depending on the topographic conditions, sometimes widespread inundation. Such natural events can also be exacerbated by drif…

1. Introduction Storm surges, like storms and hurricanes, are climatic natural events associated with notably catastrophic damage and great losses to life and property (Natural catastrophe). During the Middle Ages and early modern period, they were sometimes responsible for considerable alterations to coastal geography. A storm surge is defined as a high tide that exceeds the average by more than 1.50 m. Beyond 2.50 m, the storm surge is ‘severe’ and beyond 3.50 m, ‘very severe.’ Water …

1. IntroductionVolcanic activity tends to happen in regions of the world that are tectonically active. In Europe during the historical period, the only such regions have been southern Italy (Vesuvius, Etna, Aeolian Islands), the Canary Islands, and Iceland. However, volcanic eruptions far away, such as in the Philippines or Indonesia, can also have climatic impacts in Europe.The word “volcano” derives f…

1. IntroductionStorms and hurricanes are among the most devastating climate-driven weather events. Anglophone climatology defines a storm as sustained winds of at least 24.5 m/s (55 mph/89 km/h) or Force 10 on the Beaufort Scale. Force 11 is a violent storm (compare German: Force 9 –  Sturm, “storm”; Force 10 –  schwerer Sturm, “severe storm”; Force 11 –  orkanartiger Sturm, “hurricane-like storm”). Sustained winds of at least 32.7 m/s (73 mph/118 km/h), or Force 12 on the Beaufort Scale, is a hurricane (German  Orkan). When winds reach storm force only briefly, for a few seconds, they are said to be gusting to storm force. Further classification depends on seasonal occurrence (e.g. “winter storm”) or precipitation and admixture types (e.g. “snowstorm/blizzard,” “hailstorm” [Hail], “sandstorm,” “duststorm”). Regional terms occur, such as  …

1. Introduction From the perspective of hydrology, a distinction is made between a flood and an inundation. The former is defined as a “condition in a body of aboveground water in which the surface level or flow rate reaches or exceeds a certain value (threshold value)” [23. 15 f.]. The three key values for a flood are peak discharge, duration, and the water quantity flowing [13. 294–296]. A flood can break the banks of a river bed, either when the water level rises above a certain point or when protective embankments are breached, and thereby bring about the inundation of land. It is not always possible to identify this distinction on the basis of sources from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Because rivers in the early modern period were as yet little regulated, and river beds were gener…

1. Introduction Forest fires have a range of causes. They may be started by lightning strikes, by spontaneous ignition after long periods of drought, or by deliberate or accidental human influence, such as premeditated arson or slash-and-burn clearance (Shifting cultivation). One of the main problems of forest fires and forest clearance in particular is that the humus layer is generally destroyed in the process, with light ash easily dispersed by wind, rain, meltwaters, or avalanches [3. 463]. However, certain tree species, such as mountain pines, do apparently regen…

1. Introduction Insects were a regular topic of works of natural history, theology, and literature, and sometimes visual art, from antiquity on. Two distinct modes of perception and interpretation are discernible, and these remained practically unaltered across the millennia.…