(Ottoman form, ʿIṣmet), b. 1884, died 1973, Turkish military commander and statesman, who served on three occasions as Prime Minister in the Turkish Republic (October 1923-November 1924; March 1925-November 1937; and November 1961-February 1965) and once as President (1938-50). He played an important part in the Turkish War of Independence (1919-12), made significant contributions to the institutional framework of the new Turkish Republican state, initiated multi-party politics in 1945, acted as…

, appeal, invocation (addressed to God) either on behalf of another or for oneself ( li...), or else against someone ( ʿalā ...); hence: prayer of invocation, calling either for blessing, or for imprecation and cursing, connected with the Semitic idea of the effective value of the spoken word. Cf. Ḳurʾān XVII, 11: “Man prays for evil as he prays for good”.— Duʿāʾ therefore will have the general sense of personal prayer addressed to God, and can often be translated as “prayer of request”. I.—The scope and practice of duʿāʾ . 1. In the Ḳurʾān, duʿāʾ always keeps its original meaning of invo…

(a.), pl. waẓāʾif , literally “task, charge, impose obligation” (see Dozy, Supplément, ii, 820-1). 1. As an administrative term. In the early Islamic period, the form II verb waẓẓafa and the noun waẓīfa are used as administrative-fiscal terms with the sense of imposing a financial burden ¶ or tax, e.g. of paying the k̲h̲arād̲j̲ , ʿus̲h̲r or d̲j̲izya [ q.vv.], cf. al-Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ , 73, 193 (the waẓāʾif of the provinces of al-Urdunn, Filasṭīn, Dimas̲h̲ḳ, Ḥimṣ, etc.) and other references given in the Glossarium , 108. But as well as this loose sense, waẓīfa had a more specific one, a…

(a.), nationalism, patriotism, civic pride, in all the modern applications of these terms. The word appeared at the end of the 19th century, in the context of the extension to the field of state politics of waṭan (pl. awṭān ) “homeland”, hitherto applied to place of birth or of residence. The noun-adjective waṭanī refers to the same sectors of meaning (autochthonous, national, patriotic), while the noun muwāṭin denotes a compatriot or fellow-citizen. A pioneering role in the inculcation of these notions is to be credited to Rifāʿa Rāfiʿ al-Ṭahṭāwī [ q.v.]. “Love of country” ( ḥubb al-waṭa…

(a., pl. awrād ), denotes set, supererogatory personal devotions observed at specific times, usually at least once during the day and once again at night. Abū Ḥāmid al-G̲h̲azālī (d. 505/1111 [ q.v.]), writing shortly before the establishment of formal Ṣūfī orders, designated as awrād seven divisions of the day and five of the night for the performance of devotions (both obligatory and supererogatory) by any pious Muslim ( Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn , Book X, Kitāb tartīb al-awrād wa-tafṣīl iḥyāʾ al-layl , Cairo 1358/1939, i, 339-73). The term often has referred to Ṣūfī devotions, where a wird …

(p.), lit. “the land of the rebels”, ( yāg̲h̲ī “rebel”, istān “region”) referred to different sanctuaries used by Mud̲j̲āhidūn [see mud̲j̲āhid ] against the British authorities in the 19th and early 20th centuries, in the various independent tribal areas, mainly inhabited by the Pak̲h̲tūns, in the hinterland of what became the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of British India such as the Mohmand Agency, Bunēr, Dīr, Swāt, Kohistān, Hazāra and Čamarkand (extending into the Kunār province of Afg̲h̲ānistān and Bad̲j̲…

(a.), Communism. 1. In the Arab world. 1. Terminology This substantive and the noun-adjective S̲h̲uyūʿī were established after the First World War to denote the ideological positions and political organisations associated with the Third International, described as “communist”, as distinct from the “socialist” Second International and the positions and organisations associated with it. References to socialism ( Is̲h̲tirākiyya ), as a theoretical basis, remain in current usage, although it tends to be qualified by “scientific”. While Is̲h̲tirākiyya has prevailed over the …

( ca. 1796-1864) a distinguished scholar and mud̲j̲āhid of the Tid̲j̲āniyya ṭarīḳa [ q.v.] in the western Sudan. ʿUmar was born in Halwar in Futa Toro (present-day Senegal) to a modest scholarly family of the Fulbe [ q.v.] ethnic group. He was initiated into the Tid̲j̲āniyya in Mauritania by ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Nāḳil. A turning point in ʿUmar’s life was his pilgrimage to Mecca, on which he set out, according to traditions cited by Ly-Tall ( Un Islam militant, 83), in 1825. While in the Ḥid̲j̲āz (1828-30) ʿUmar was attached to Muḥammad al-G̲h̲ālī, the Tid̲j̲ānī k̲h̲alīfa …

, Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad (reigned 575-622/1180-1225), 34th ʿAbbāsid caliph, was born in 553/1158. Son and successor of al-Mustaḍīʾ bi-Amr Allāh [ q.v.], he had strained relations with his conservative father, who had kept him in seclusion for a while for fear that he might be influenced by harmful innovations. Yet, after his father’s death, he successfully defended his claim to the throne against the court clique. His relations with his ¶ mother, a Turkish slave called Zumurrud K̲h̲ātūn, were more balanced. During al-Mustaḍīʾ’s and al-Nāṣir’s caliphates, she made a n…

, Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. al-Mahdī Ibn ʿAd̲j̲ība al-Ḥasanī , Moroccan Ṣūfī of S̲h̲arīfian origin, was one of the most distinguished representatives of the mystical order of the Darḳāwa [ q.v.]. He was born in 1160 or 1161/1746-7 at al-K̲h̲amīs, an important village of the And̲j̲ra tribe (Mediterranean coastal region of Morocco, between Tangier and Tetuan). Having been attracted from his childhood to devotional observance ¶ and religious learning, he studied assiduously the ‘reading’ of the Ḳurʾān, theology, holy law and philology, first with local fuḳahāʾ …

, a branch of the S̲h̲ādhiliyya [ q.v.] Ṣūfī order named after Muḥammad b. Ḥasan b. Ḥamza Ẓāfir al-Madanī (1194-Ḏj̲umādā I 1263/1780 - April-May 1847), who was originally a muḳaddam [ q.v.] of Mawlāy Abū Aḥmad al-ʿArbī al-Darḳāwī [see darḳāwa ]. From 1240/1824-5 al-Madanī presented himself as independent head of a ṭariḳa [ q.v.] in his own right (ʿAbd al-Ḳādir Zakī, al-Nafḥa al-ʿaliyya fī awrād al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲iliyya , Cairo 1321/1903-4, 233) while retaining the essentials of S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī teaching and liturgical practice (see Muḥammad Aḥmad Sayyid Aḥmad, al-Anwār al-d̲h̲ahabiyya li ’l-…

(p.), freedom, synonymous with Arabic ḥurriyya [ q.v.]. Deriving from the Avestan word ā-zāta and the Pahlavi word āzāt (noble), the word ¶ āzādī has as long a history as Persian literature itself. It was employed by Persian writers and poets such as Firdawsī, Farruk̲h̲ī Sīstānī, Gurgānī, Rūmī, K̲h̲āḳānī, Nāṣir-i K̲h̲usraw, and Ẓahīr Fāriyābī in a variety of meanings including, for instance, choice, separation, happiness, relaxation, thanksgiving, praise, deliverance, non-slavery, and so on (see Dihk̲h̲udā, art. Āzādī , in Lug̲h̲at-nāma , ii/1, 86-7). …

This term, commonly used in modern Arabic to mean a “society” or “association”, is derived from the root D̲J̲ - M - ʿ, meaning “to collect, join together, etc.”. In its modern sense it appears to have come into use quite recently, and was perhaps first used to refer to the organized monastic communities or congregations which appeared in the eastern Uniate Churches in Syria and Lebanon at the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries ( e.g., D̲j̲amʿiyyat al-Muk̲h̲alliṣ , the Salvatorians, a Greek Catholic order founded c. 1708). In …

, muḥammad , Moroccan statesman and writer (1907-74). Born at Fās, he was educated at the university of al-Ḳarawiyyīn [ q.v.]. From the age of 18 onwards, he took part in the diffusion throughout Morocco of the progressive movement of the Salafiyya [ q.v.], and his militant attitude in favour of local nationalist aspirations, as well as his oratorical powers, soon led the government to confine him to a house, under guard, at Tāza. He was freed in 1931 and returned to Fās, where he began to lecture at the Ḳarawiyyīn; these lectures were h…

, Egyptian jurist and politician, from 1918 to his death in 1927 president of the Egyptian Wafd party and in 1924 Prime Minister. Saʿd Zag̲h̲lūl was born as the second son of Ibrāhīm Zag̲h̲lūl and his second wife Maryam in July 1858 (others say 1857, 1859 or 1860, discussed by Ramaḍān, Mud̲h̲akkirāt , i, 48 ff.). His father was a landowner in Abyāna near Fuwwa in the Lower Egyptian province of al-G̲h̲arbiyya. Besides the resident notable families Zayd and Ḥusām ad-Dīn, the Zag̲h̲ālila belonged to the most prestigious and wealthy families of the village. Ibrāhīm Zag̲h̲lūl owned about 250 faddā…

, a term used to denote (a) the doctrine and (b) the followers of Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (1115-1206/1703-92 [see ibn ʿabd al-wahhāb ]). The term is derived from Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb’s father’s name “ʿAbd al-Wahhāb” and was originally used by Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb’s opponents to denounce his doctrine as mere personal opinion. Probably the first appearance the term made is in the title of the K. al-Ṣawāʿiḳ al-ilāhiyya fi ’l-radd ʿalā ’l-Wahhābiyya (first ed. Bombay 1306/1888-9) of Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1208/1793-4) who up to…

, Sayyid Ḥasan (b. Tabrīz, 27 September 1878, d. Tehran, 28 January 1970), Persian politician and scholar of Iranian studies. 1. Life. The son of Sayyid Taḳī Urdūbādī, he received both a traditional Islamic and a modern education, including natural science and French and, to some extent, the English language. In Tabrīz he founded, with three like-minded friends, an ephemeral journal, Gand̲j̲īna-yi funūn (1903-4), and then travelled for a year in the Caucasus, Istanbul, Beirut and Egypt, returning with Western modernist ideas and sympa…

, a Ṣūfī ṭarīḳa which was founded by Aḥmad al-Tid̲j̲ānī [ q.v.] in the oasis of Abī Samg̲h̲ūn in Algeria in 1196/1781-2. Aḥmad al-Tid̲j̲ānī settled in Fās in 1789, where he developed a local following and initiated into his ṭarīḳa Muslims from other parts of the Mag̲h̲rib and West Africa, through whom it spread in these regions. The papers presented at the Paris conference of 1982 on the present state of the Ṣūfī orders, which were published by A. Popovic and G. Veinstein as Les ordres mystiques dans l’Islam . Cheminements et situation actuelle , document the presen…

(in modern Egyptian Arabic il-Bedawī), with the kunya Abu ’l-Fityān, is the most popular saint of the Muslims in Egypt and has been so for about 700 years. By the people he is often called simply is-sayyid; in a song in his honour (ed. Littmann) he has the title of s̲h̲ēk̲h̲ il-ʿArab because of his name al-Badawī, and this name was given to him because he wore a veil like the bedouin of the Mag̲h̲rib. As a Ṣūfī he was called al-ḳuṭb , «the pole». Aḥmad was probably born in Fez in 596/1199-1200, and he seems to have been the youngest of seven or eight children. His mother was cal…

(i) The history of the institution of the caliphate A study of the caliphate, its institution and subsequent developments, has never been attempted in its entirety until the present. The principal reason is that it has not seemed possible to conduct such a survey independently of historical studies relating to different reigns, which are still in most cases insufficient, or even non-existent, whereas studies of doctrine, while more advanced, have not been developed to the same extent with regard to the v…