, the Prophet of Islam. 1. The Prophet’s life and career. 2. The Prophet in popular Muslim piety. 3. The Prophet’s image in Europe and the West. 1. The Prophet’s life and career. Belief that Muḥammad is the Messenger of God ( Muḥammadun rasūlu ’llāh ) is second only to belief in the Oneness of God ( lā ilāha illā ’llāh ) according to the s̲h̲ahāda [ q.v.], the quintessential Islamic creed. Muḥammad has a highly exalted role at the heart of Muslim faith. At the same time the Ḳurʾān and Islamic orthodoxy insist that he was fully human with no supernatural powers. That Muḥammad was one of the greate…

( Tas̲h̲lḥiyt ), a dialect of Berber. 1. Linguistic region. Tas̲h̲elḥīt or Tas̲h̲lḥiyt is the most important Berber dialect of Morocco, both by the number of its speakers and by the extent of its area. The space within which it is used as a first language comprises an area within a line in the north connecting Essaouira (Mogador) and Tanant in the High Atlas, a line following the eastern slopes of the High Atlas towards the region of Ouarzazate, a southern line following the course of the Wadi Dra and western one represented by the Atlantic coast from the mouth of the Wadi Noun to Essaouira. From th…

“pīr-i raws̲h̲ān (or raws̲h̲an ) b. ʿabd allāh ḳāḍī b. s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ muḥammad , the founder of a religious and national movement of the Afg̲h̲āns (called pīr-tārīk by the Mug̲h̲al historians etc., after Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Mullā Muḥammad, commonly known as Mullā Zangī, a teacher of the Pīr’s chief opponent Āk̲h̲und Darwīza, who was the first to dub him thus ( Tad̲h̲kira f. 92). He claimed descent through S̲h̲. Sirād̲j̲ al-Dīn (his fifth ancestor) from (Abū) Ayyūb al-Anṣārī, the famous Companion of the Prophet, (his 21st ancestor). His mother Aymana (varr. Bih-bīn, Bīban, Maʾāt̲h̲ir al-Umarāʾ …

(or al-Nawāwī ), Muḥyī al-Dīn Abū Zakariyyāʾ Yaḥyā b. S̲h̲araf b. Murī [following Nawawī’s own spelling, Suyūṭī, fol. 53b] b. Ḥasan b. Ḥusayn b. Muḥammad b. D̲j̲umʿa b. Ḥizām al-Ḥizāmī al-Dimas̲h̲ḳī , a S̲h̲āfiʿī jurist, born in Muḥarram 631/October 1233 in Nawā south of Damascus in D̲j̲awlān. The ability of the boy very early attracted attention and his father brought him in 649/1251 to the Madrasa al-Rawāḥiyya in Damascus. There he first of all studied medicine but very soon went over to Islamic learni…

, (?-1041/1631-2), a commentator of the Mat̲h̲nawī of D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Rūmī. His date of birth is unknown, but it is known that he was born in Ankara, received a good education, was active in trade and entered the Ḵh̲alwatiyya order of dervishes (cf. S̲h̲arḥ-i Mat̲h̲nawī , i, 11, introduction). Having contracted an eye disease, Ismāʿīl went to Ḳonya where he became a follower of the Mawlawī s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Bostān Čelebī (d. 1040/1630), who named him k̲h̲alīfa . Ismāʿīl then went to Istanbul, where he became s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ of the Mawlawī-k̲h̲āne (Mevlevī dervish house) of Galata, a positi…

, once an Arabie port ( furḍa ) on the Red Sea, 20 days’ journey south of Ayla, 3 from al-D̲j̲uḥfa. Until almost the end of the Middle Ages (when Yanbuʿ, which is situated further north, took over this function), al-D̲j̲ār was the supply port of Medina, one day’s journey away (This according to Yāḳūt, ii, 5; according to BGA, vi, 191 it was two days’ journey; according to BGA, i, 19, and ii2, 31 it was three). Al-D̲j̲ār was half on the mainland, and half on an island just offshore. Drinking water had to be brought from the Wādī Yalyal, two parasangs distant. It was a…

(a.), a neologism of comparatively recent creation, generally understood in the sense of holiness. The word does not occur either in the Ḳurʾān or in ḥadīt̲h̲ , and the LA ignores it. On the other hand, the root ḳ-d-s is well known to the Arab lexicographers; the Ḳurʾān (II, 30, 87, 253; V, 21, no; XVI, 102; XX, 12; LIX, 23; LXII, 1; LXXIX, 16) and ḥadīt̲h̲ (Wensinck, Concordance ) use it sporadically. Basically, it is used to denote beings and objects that are pure, wholly unsullied or in touch with the divine. This religious meaning seems to be alien to Arabic and borrowed from Aramai…

, pl. bakkāʾūn , bukkāʾ , “weepers”, ascetics who during their devotional exercises shed many tears. Older Islamic asceticism and mysticism are characterised by a strong consciousness of sin, by austere penance, humility, contrition and mourning. Laughter was denounced. An outward sign of this attitude is the act of weeping. The Ḳurʾān (Sūra xvii, 109: “and they fall down on their chins, weeping”, and Sūra xix, 58: “when the signs of the Merciful were recited before them, they fell down, prostrating themselves, weeping”), and then, above all, the ḥadīt̲h̲ ackn…

(a.), “matter”, originally “a piece of earth”, ṭīn “earth, clay” [ q.v.] being the Ḳurʾānic term for the material of creation, and specifically of man (III, 49; V, 110; VI, 2; VII, 12; XXIII, 12; XXVIII, 38; XXXII, 7; XXXVII, 11; XXXVIII, 71, 76; cf. Wensinck et alii Concordance , s.v. ṭīn, on ṭīnat Ādam in the Ḥadīt̲h̲; Lane, s.v., hence ibn al-ṭīn for “man”). In philosophical allegory, the term occurs in direct reference to the Ḳurʾānic ṭīn, as in Ibn Ṭufayl’s Ḥayy ibn Yaḳẓān (ed. Gauthier, 27) where the spontaneous generation of a human being from a “fe…

(a., from wabiʾa “to be contaminated”, said of a region or land affected by the plague), the mediaeval Arabic term for “epidemic, pestilence”, and theoretically distinguished from ṭāʿūn , from ṭaʿana “to pierce, stab”, in the more specific sense of “plague”. ¶ In mediaeval Arabic medical treatises, one encounters the phrase “every ṭāʿūn is a wabāʾ , but not every wabāʾ is a ṭāʿūn”. While it appears that the distinction had been kept in the early Hid̲j̲rī centuries, it is doubtful, however, whether later Muslim writers always used the two terms with the prec…

, appeal, invocation (addressed to God) either on behalf of another or for oneself ( li...), or else against someone ( ʿalā ...); hence: prayer of invocation, calling either for blessing, or for imprecation and cursing, connected with the Semitic idea of the effective value of the spoken word. Cf. Ḳurʾān XVII, 11: “Man prays for evil as he prays for good”.— Duʿāʾ therefore will have the general sense of personal prayer addressed to God, and can often be translated as “prayer of request”. I.—The scope and practice of duʿāʾ . 1. In the Ḳurʾān, duʿāʾ always keeps its original meaning of invo…

, Abū D̲j̲aʿfar Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Muḥammad, traditionist, Ḥanafī jurist and As̲h̲ʿ arī theologian, born at a place called Simnān in ʿIrāḳ (and not at the better-known one in Ḳūmis) in 361/971-2, died at Mawṣil in Rabīʿ I 444/July 1052. He lived mainly in Bag̲h̲dād, and then in Mawṣil, where he acted as ḳāḍī . In ḥadīt̲h̲ , his masters included al-Dāraḳuṭnī [ q.v.] and Naṣr b. Aḥmad al-Mawṣilī, and amongst his own disciples was al-K̲h̲aṭīb al-Bag̲h̲dādī [ q.v.]. In fiḳh , he is said to have composed several works, whose titles are not specified. But it…

, the equivalent of mahr [ q.v.], dowry. Lane gives ṣadāḳ , with the alternative ṣidāḳ (noting that the former is more common but the latter more "chaste"), plurals ṣuduḳ , ṣudḳ , and aṣdiḳa as "the mahr of a woman". Amongst the other alternative forms given by Lane the most commonly found is ṣaduḳa (pl. ṣaduḳāt ) and the form IV verb of the same root, aṣdaḳa , means to name or give a ṣadāḳ upon taking a woman in marriage. Al-Ḏj̲azīrī says that it is derived from ṣidḳ truth, honesty, sincerity as it is an indication of the husband’s desire to marry by the givin…

(a.), the action of raising oneself, of rising, and of resurrection. The root ḳ-w-m is employed very frequently in the language of the Ḳurʾān. Ḳiyāma occurs there seventy times, always in the expression yawm al-ḳiyāma “the day of resurrection”. The resurrection of bodies follows the annihilation of all creatures ( al-fanāʾ al-muṭlaḳ ), and precedes the “judgment” ( dīn ), the “day of judgement” ( yawm al-dīn ).This will be the Last Hour ( al-sāʿa ). Al-sāʿa , yawm al-ḳiyāma and yawm al-dīn, taken as a whole constitute one of the “necessary beliefs” which determine the content…

b. al-Ward, Abū Bisṭām al-ʿAtakī, a mawlā from Baṣra with the honorific s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-islām , was an eminent scholar and collector of ḥadīt̲h̲ [ q.v.]. Born during the years 82-6/702-7, his death from the plague is generally taken to have occurred in 160/776. Originally from Wāsiṭ, he came to live in Baṣra, where he sought out al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī [ q.v.]. S̲h̲uʿba is recorded to have studied masāʾil (= juridical problems) with him, so if that is historical he may be assumed to have arrived there in or before 110/728, the year in which Ḥasan…

, Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Ḥasan (incorrect var. Ḥusayn ) b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan al-K̲h̲aṭīb b. ʿAlī b. Maymūn b. Ḳunfud̲h̲ (var. al-Ḳunfud̲h̲ ), Algerian jurist, traditionist and historian born in 731/1330 or, more probably, in 741/1340, died in 809/1406 or 810/1407, in Constantine, a member of a family of teachers and jurists from that town and its environs. His ancestor, Ḥasan b. ʿAlī al-K̲h̲aṭīb, who taught ḥadīt̲h̲ in Constantine and claimed to belong to the confraternity of the S̲h̲ād̲h̲iliyya, died in 664/1265 (cf. Wafayāt , 51); his grandfather ʿAlī b. Ḥasan, also k̲h̲aṭīb …

, Abū Bakr Muḥammad b. Ḥibbān al-Tamīmī al-Bustī al-S̲h̲āfiʿī , traditionist. He was born at Bust [ q.v.] ca. 270/883-4 into a family of Arab descent (see his pedigree in Yāḳūt, i, 613 and Ibn Ḥad̲j̲ar, Lisān al-Mīzān , v, 114). He travelled in search of traditions through many countries from Transoxania to Egypt (list of places and scholars visited, in Yāḳūt, i, 613-5). Of his teachers none had a greater influence upon him than Abū Bakr Ibn K̲h̲uzavma al-S̲h̲āfiʿī of Nīsābūr who taught him how to ascertain the…

(a.), lit. “barber”, “hairdresser”, synonymous with muzayyin ; the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ām (“cupper”) [see faṣṣād, in Suppl.] also used to be a part-time barber. The ḥallāḳs formed a group of skilled workers, of mixed social origins. The well-known barber in the Islamic society of Medina was Ḵh̲irās̲h̲ b. Umayya, who shaved the Prophet Muḥammad’s hair. The Prophet had his hair shaved at Minā at the time of the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ , and Muslims have followed this practice during the Greater and Lesser Pilgrimages ever since. Some barber’s work at the time of the Pilgrimage received attention from…

, the nisba of two Andalusian traditionists, father and son, both connected with the northern Spanish town of Saraḳusṭa [ q.v.] or Saragossa. These are Abū Muḥammad Ḳāsim b. T̲h̲ābit b. Ḥazm b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Muṭarrif b. Sulaymān b. Yaḥyā al-ʿAwfī al-Zuhrī (255-302/869-914) and his father Abu ’l-Ḳāsim T̲h̲ābit (217-313/832-925 or 314/926). The biographical sources mention variants in their nasab that show that their genealogy was manipulated. They were Berbers who had established ties of walāʾ ( walāʾ ʿalāḳa ) with the Banū Zuhra, as all the Berbers…

(a.), difference, also inconsistency; as a technical term, the differences of opinion amongst the authorities of religious law, both between the several schools and within each of them; opp. id̲j̲māʾ , ittifāḳ . The ancient schools of law, on the one hand, accepted geographical differences of doctrines as natural; on the other hand, they voiced strong objections to disagreement within each school, an opinion which was mitigated by their acceptance as legitimate of different opinions if based on id̲j̲tihād . The rising tide of traditions from the Prop…