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(Πάνδαρος; Pándaros, Lat. Pandarus). [German version] [1] Trojan troop commander Trojan troop commander, son of Lycaon (but cf. also Carcabus);Verg. Aen. 5,495-497 mentions Eurythion [5] as his brother. According to Hom. Il. 4,103 and 121, P. lived in Zelia (Troas) the contingent of which was under his command (Hom. Il. 2,824-827), whilst Hom. Il. 5,105 and (implicitly) 173 identifies Lycia (Lycii, Lycia) as his country of origin eventhough the Lycian troop contingent was led by Sarpedon and Glaucus [4] (…

[German version] Hittite name attested in the 14th-13th cents. BC ( Lu-uk-ka/ ka4-a- [Lukkā-], with a stem ending of prolonged grade and certainly accented. Akkadian Lukki, Egyptian Rk [Luka/i]) for the area encompassing southwestern Asia Minor, western Pamphylia/ western Pisidia, Lycia and southern Caria, which stretched in the east to the Cestrus (Hittite Kastraja), in the north to Arzawa (or Mira) and bordered on Mycenaean settled Millawa(n)da ( Miletus) ( Hattusa II with map). It should be understood only in the poli…

[German version] A. Documented period, language area Derived from the Hittite designation Luu̯ili-, Luwian is the term for the most widespread representative of the Anatolian languages in Asia Minor. It is attested in two dialects, both recorded in different writing systems. Cuneiform Luwian (CL, 16th to 13th cent. BC) and Hieroglyphic Luwian (HL, 15th to early 7th cent. BC), as well as in its late successors Pisidian (Pis., 3rd cent. AD), Lycian (5th to 4th cent. BC) and Milyan (Mil., 5th/4th cents. BC), …

[German version] I. Geographic location, borders Luwian-speaking (Luwian) state in Northwestern Asia Minor documented in Hittite transmission in the 15th-13th cents. BC. Its core area comprised the valleys of the Hermus [2] and the Caecus [1] (merging near the coast), and its name is derived from one of these two rivers. The Hittite designation is Sēḫas utnē (in Akkadian orthography KUR ÍD ŠE-E-ḪA) 'the land of S.,' while the name 'river land of S.', often found in secondary literature, is based on the inappropriate translation of the determinative ÍD 'river.' In the north, S. borde…

[German version] A. Introduction Horsemanship refers to the riding style developed in ancient times for military use of the  horse that has remained dominant up to the present time for European riding - the ‘classical riding style’. It is distinguished from other riding styles (that were only passed down or arose in modern times) in that in the training of the horse it is not satisfied with mere habituation but follows a systematic, gradually increased exercise programme that is based on strict obse…

[German version] A. Tradition The language, passed down to us in Babylonian cuneiform, of the Hittites who had political leadership in Asia Minor in the 2nd millennium BC (core area appr. the geographical region outlined by Halys/Kızıl İrmak,  Ḫattusa II), which they themselves called Nesumnili- ‘Nesic’, a derivative of the place name Nēsa- (= Old Assyrian Kaneš, near Kayseri; the modern term has its origin in the historical development of the discipline); at the same time the most important representative of the  Anatolian languages from the point …

[German version] Inland country of the Hittite Empire (Ḫattusa II. with map) in southern Asia Minor, which first makes an appearance in history at the time of Muwattalli II ( c. 1290-1272 BC) during the temporary relocation of the Hittite capital to this region's capital of the same name (T.; at modern Karaman or in the upper  Calycadnus valley). After Mursili III Urḫitesub ( c. 1272-1265) was deposed, Ḫattusili II (previously “III”; c.  1265-1240) established in T., as compensation for his brother Kurunta Ulmitesub who had been excluded from the legitimate successi…

[German version] I. Name Strabo was the first to refer to the peninsula of Asia Minor (AM) west of the  Taurus (Str. 2,5,24; 12,1,3; cf. Plin. HN 5,27f.; Ptol. 5,2) as a single unit by the name of Asia in the narrower sense, as opposed to the continent of Asia. The term of Asia minor in this sense is first used in Oros. 1,2,26 (early 5th cent. AD). Olshausen, Eckart (Stuttgart) [German version] II. Geography AM is the westernmost part of the Asian continent between 36° and 42° northern latitude, and 26° and 44° eastern longitude, stretching from the Aegean to the Euphrates ( c. 1,200 km), and fro…

[German version] The language of the country of Plā (cuneiform Pa-la-a-) situated northwest of the Halys in Paphlagonia. It belongs to the Anatolian languages and is passed down from the 16th-15th cent. BC by the Hittites (Ḫattusa II, Hittite). The names of Plā and of neighbouring Tum(m)anna (Ḫattusa II , map), survive in the Greek regional names Blaē̈nḗ and Domanítis. It would therefore seem more accurate if the name of the language, which derives from Hittite Plaumnili- (derivation from the ethnic name Plaumen-*), were 'Plaic'. The extent of the area in which P. was spoken is…

[German version] I. Introduction The outstanding historical and cultural significance which has been attached to horses since the 2nd millennium BC - first to pull  war chariots, later primarily for riding - in the area of the ancient Orient and Graeco-Roman antiquity has meant that archaeologists in the last 100 years have focused on the (esp. early) history of the exploitation of this domestic animal far more than on that of all the others. Scientific discussion in the first half of the 20th cent.…

[German version] I. Crete A script that was formerly also described as ‘pictographic’ (but is still undeciphered) with many image-like symbols (human and animal body parts, plants, fruit, vessels, weapons, musical instruments, etc.) was created by the Minoan culture in Crete and especially used during the First Palace Period (1900-1700 BC). However, its origins are much older. The inspiration may have come from Egypt or the Levant, but the ‘Anatolian hieroglyphs’ are later. The evidence comes from 3…

[German version] The earliest documented Indo-Germanic language branch, which occurs in Asia Minor; ranged in the 2nd millennium from the Aegean coast to the Euphrates, gradually in the 1st millennium through  Phrygia, later above all through  Greece until it penetrated relatively inaccessible parts of the Taurus mountains (East Pisidia, Lycaonia, Isauria), where Anatolian (Luwian) language carriers remained, probably until the early Byzantine era. To the Anatolian languages (AL) belong  Hittite. …

I. Ancient Orient [German version] A. History With the development of the skill of driving teams of horses in the 1st half of the 2nd millennium BC, the methodological foundations of riding also were in place ( Horse III,  Horsemanship). Although there is definite evidence of mounted messengers and scouts from as early as the 14th/13th cents. BC onwards (Akkadogram LÚPETḪALLUM ‘rider’ in Hittite texts; Egyptian pictorial evidence [10]), the use of the cavalry as an armed force did not develop until during the 9th/8th cents. Decisive in this was the diff…

[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Writing | Urarṭu | Ḫattusa | Asia Minor | Mesopotamia | Aegean Koine North Syrian city at the intersection of important trade routes on the Euphrates, economically and politically advantaged by its position on the border of a fertile plain, with access to mountain regions rich in raw materials. The existence of a settlement is documented as early as the 5th millennium BC through ceramic findings, its name (Akkadian K/Gark/gamis/š; Hittite, Luwian Karkamissa-; Hebrew Karkemiš, among others) as early as 2500-600 BC. In…

(Μίλητος; Mílētos). [German version] [1] Mythical founder of the city of Miletus Mythical founder of the city of M. [2]; from Crete; son of Apollo and Areia, daughter of Cleochus whose tomb was in the sanctuary of Didyma [1. 165f.] (Apollod. 3,5f.), or of Apollo and Deione (Ov. Met. 9,443ff.) or of Apollo and Acacallis, daughter of Minos (Antoninus Liberalis 30). Minos fell in love with M., but M. fleed to Caria, establishds M. there [2] and married Eidothea; the children of their union are Byblis and Caunus [1]. According to Ephorus FGrH 70 F 127 M. was founded by Sarpedon. Käppel, Lutz (Kiel) Bi…

[German version] State recorded in the 14th-13th cents. BC by the Hittite tradition (Hittite U̯ilusa-/ U̯ilussa-) in the northwest of Asia Minor, which was initially known to the Hittites at the end of the 15th cent. under the name Āssuwa (=Ā.). Its geographical location in the Troad (cf. Ḫattusa II, map, and above all the maps in [2. 304-307]), which was proposed as early as 1924 [6] and was able to be proved in 1997 on the basis of new evidence [8; 4], follows from W.'s close connexion with the sea [10. 603…

[German version] I. Geographical site, boundaries M. (Hittite also Merā-) is the name of the core territory of the significant Luwian-speaking state of Arzawa in western Asia Minor, which is attested from the 16th cent. BC on, primarily through the Hittite tradition, and of the Hittite vassal state formed out of it in c. 1315 BC. The vassal state grew into a Great Kingdom at the end of the 13th cent., and may have survived the collapse of the Hittite Empire (shortly after 1200 BC; see Ḫattusa II.). The western part of M., with the Arzawan capital of Abasa/Ephesus, encompassed the r…

This item can be found on the following maps: Writing | Asia Minor | Asia Minor | Mesopotamia | Aegean Koine [German version] I. City, archaeological Capital of the Hittites in central Asia Minor near Boğazkale (earlier Boğazköy), province Çorum, c. 150 km east of Ankara, Turkey. Sporadically settled since the Chalcolithic (6th millennium BC), Ḫ. was the location of an Assyrian trading colony ( kārum;  Kaneš) next to a native Hatti settlement in the 19th/18th cents. BC. The city was destroyed around 1700 BC; from Ḫattusili I (around 1600 BC), it was the sea…

[German version] Language of the inhabitants of Caria ( Cares, Caria), documented in c. 200 inscriptions -- from the 7th-4th cents. BC that are mostly very short or fragmentary and written in a characteristic alphabetic script -- which apart from Greek-Carian bilingual inscriptions from Athens that came from Carian mercenaries and almost solely contain personal names, for the most part come from Egypt (e.g. Saqqāra, Abydus, Abu Simbel), and to a lesser extent from Caria itself (e.g. Caunus, Hyllarima, Sinur…

[German version] Lydian, belonging to the Anatolian languages, is the language of the Lydians and is transmitted in its own alphabetical script, which is written either left-to-right or right-to-left ( Asia Minor V., with map). Around 100 inscriptions are known today (including several graffiti and inscriptions on seals and coins), the majority of them, including two Lydian-Greek and two Lydian-Aramaic bilingual inscriptions, stemming from the 5th-4th/3rd cent. BC, while some of the graffiti and c…