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Trade/Trade Routes

(2,965 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. (Göttingen RWG)
Denzel, Markus A. (Göttingen RWG) [German version] A. Introduction (CT) A lively discussion, initiated by Dopsch in 1918-20 and taken up by Pirenne in 1922, has developed and continues to this day concerning the question of the continuity of trade, especially in the Mediterranean, from Antiquity into post-Antiquity. It must be said, however, that the gap between the supporters of unimpeded continuity and those who suggest a profound, long-lasting break in development has in the meantime greatly narrowed. …

Money/Money economy/Money theory

(2,628 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. (Göttingen RWG)
Denzel, Markus A. (Göttingen RWG) [German version] A. Introduction (CT) A. Introduction The monetary forms that have developed from pieces of precious metals since the 7th cent. BC, whose value was guaranteed by the ruler or the community, and their increasingly dominant role in the economy of the Mediterranean region gradually displaced the much older way of payment in kind in all its forms (stone, ring and tooth, jewelry, clothing, money tokens as well as formed and unformed metal money). In Alexander the…

Handel/Handelswege

(2,419 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. (Göttingen) RWG
Denzel, Markus A. (Göttingen) RWG [English version] A. Einleitung (RWG) Um die Frage der Kontinuität des Handels, insbes. im Mittelmeerraum, von der ant. in die nachant. Welt entspann sich seit den 1920er Jahren eine heftige Forschungsdiskussion, die Dopsch 1918-20, dann Pirenne 1922 entfachten und die letztlich bis heute andauert. Allerdings haben sich die Positionen zwischen uneingeschränkter Kontinuität einerseits und tiefem, langandauerndem Entwicklungsbruch andererseits inzwischen sehr weit angenäher…

Geld/Geldwirtschaft/Geldtheorie

(2,334 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. (Göttingen) RWG
Denzel, Markus A. (Göttingen) RWG [English version] A. Einleitung (RWG) Die sich seit dem 7. Jh. v. Chr. entwickelnden Geldformen aus Edelmetallstücken, deren Wert vom Herrscher oder vom Gemeinwesen garantiert war, und ihre zunehmend dominierende Bed. im Wirtschaftsgeschehen der Mittelmeerwelt leiteten die Zurückdrängung des wesentlich älteren Warengeldes in allen seinen Facetten (Stein-, Ring- und Zahn-, Schmuck-, Kleider-, Nutzgeld sowie ungeformtes und geformtes Metallgeld) ein. Im Weltreich Alexanders…

Bookkeeping, double-entry

(1,601 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Bookkeeping in Antiquity and the Middle Ages Bookkeeping or accounting is probably almost as old as commercial activity itself. In Sumerian Mesopotamia (3rd millennium BCE), commercial transactions were already being recorded on clay tablets. This simple method of bookkeeping, in use since antiquity, served to document completed transactions as a reminder for the trader and as evidence in legal disputes. The Roman Corpus iuris civilis, for example, required the accounts of merchants to be presented publicly in court in case of disputes.Such documentation became especial…
Date: 2019-10-14

Bill of exchange

(2,135 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Löhnig, Martin
1. Economics 1.1. Basics The bill of exchange (Italian lettera di cambio, French letter de change, German Wechsel), “one of the most important achievements in the history of economics” [4], was developed in Italy on the basis of ancient precursors during the Commercial Revolution (12th–14th centuries). In its classic form, dating from the 14th century, it represented an order for payment, in which the maker (drawer) of the bill instructed the drawee (acceptor) to clear a debt elsewhere for a beneficiary or bearer in his pl…
Date: 2019-10-14

Trading company

(1,539 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Pfister, Ulrich
1. Basics In modern commercial law, an open trading company (general partnership) is an association of two or more natural or legal persons to engage in commercial trade under a common brand name. Trading companies in this sense have been widespread since the end of the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, contractual variants are found that make it necessary to distinguish been investors who are liable only to the extent of their investment and fully liable capital bearers, and to recognize that…
Date: 2022-11-07

Exchange bank

(817 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Denotation Unlike bureaux de change, which already existed in Upper Germany in the late Middle Ages, exchange banks were public clearing- and deposit banks, usually established by a town to function as a clearinghouse with a multilateral system of accounting, in order to better regulate the increasingly common practice of cashless payment transactions. At the same time, by means of the introduction of a currency of accounting (bank currency), exchange banks stabilized the existing cash and curr…
Date: 2019-10-14

Trade, Long-distance

(2,095 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Definition“Long-distance” or “international” trade (for the Middle Ages and the first part of the early modern period a somewhat anachronistic term) constituted a central anchor of economic activity both within Europe and between Europe and extra-European economic zones. In contrast to local and regional trade, not to mention pedlary, long-distance trade covered great distances and provided for movement of goods and money between distant regions of Europe and increasingly – beginning in the 16th century – between Europe and regions outside Europe (overseas trade).Long-dis…
Date: 2022-11-07

Trading book

(1,319 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. TypesTrading books are among the most important sources for the history of trade. Ever since the Commercial Revolution that began in Italy in the 12th and 13th centuries, there were two primary types:1) The development of bookkeeping, of whatever kind, created account books in the narrower sense, which documented mercantile transactions (including the correspondence that accompanied them). Over the centuries, and especially when double-entry bookkeeping (Bookkeeping, double-entry) was implemented in the 14th and 15th cent…
Date: 2022-11-07

Trade, external

(1,970 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. DefinitionExternal trade, in contrast to internal trade, is the portion of trade that imports (Import) or exports (Export) goods across the borders of a country or imports goods in order to export them again as quickly as possible, sometimes further processed or refined (re-export). In this sense, every territory of the early modern Holy Roman Empire that traded with its neighbors engaged in external trade. When external trade was essentially entrepot trade (Staple), that is, when the great ma…
Date: 2022-11-07

Dispatch

(810 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
The dispatching of goods in the early modern period was always regarded as an integral part of trade, although a distinction may be made between “normal” carriage, simple traffic and transport between two places, and long-distance dispatch (Ger. Speditionshandel or Transithandel).Dispatch as part of the business of trade was not generally operated professionally (cf. Professionalization 4.2.). Waggoners, in Alpine districts pack drivers, on larger rivers bargees or raftsmen, were often peasants and tenants, who took on paid transport…
Date: 2019-10-14

Currency

(2,375 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Pfister, Ulrich
1. Definition The term currency (from Latin currens, “flowing”) originally meant a condition of fluidity; the figurative sense of “circulation” of money was coined in 1690 by John Locke. The German term Währung (from MHG werunge, “guarantee”) refers to a territory's legal regulation of the monetary system, and, like currency, encompasses the definition of the coinage system (coin standard, establishment of the relative values of different coins and the intrinsic precious metal content), the establishment of legal tender, and ex…
Date: 2019-10-14

Trade agreement

(1,363 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Beck, Thomas
A trade agreement – long-term and comprehensive or short-term – is a contractual convention concerning external trade relationships (Trade, external) between two or more cities, countries, or territories.1. EuropeEver since the Middle Ages, movement of goods across borders has been regulated by trade agreements, in which issues of customs law in particular played a central role. Trade agreements also dealt with the legal status of the merchants involved, especially away from home – that is, their freedom to settle abroad, …
Date: 2022-11-07

Insurance

(3,370 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Pahlow, Louis | Mittag, Jürgen
1. Commercial history 1.1. Definition and historical originsInsurance is the elimination of individual financial risk by distributing it to a community with similar risk. This is done by the payment of individual contributions or premiums into a common fund, the total sum of which is determined by the amount of risk to be covered. The commercial insurance industry facilitates the creation of risk communities, the collection of premiums, and the disbursal of insurance benefits as services. Together with…
Date: 2019-10-14

Zollverein

(1,220 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Legal status, membersThe German Customs Union was legally not quite a solid confederation of states (States, confederation of), but it clearly represented more than a simple trade agreement dealing with a central aspect of the economy – customs duties and, in the broader sense, external trade (Trade, external). Functionally, therefore, it can be considered a predecessor of today’s international organizations. In the Customs Union Treaty of March 22, 1833 to January 1, 1834, the states …
Date: 2023-11-14

Trading customs

(722 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
Trading customs (German Handelsusancen, from Italian  usanza or uso, “custom,” “usage”) are customary agreements or commercial practices between merchants that relate to various segments of trade transactions. They arose beginning in the high Middle Ages to meet various needs and requirements and were maintained by tradition – for example, the manner in which the price of wheat was recorded.Trading customs varied, sometimes substantially, at individual commercial centers (Trade fairs or towns). It was absolutely necessary for a merchant to be fami…
Date: 2022-11-07

Fair, annual

(1,349 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Introduction An annual fair (German Jahrmarkt), also called kermis, was a market with a regional catchment area, held once or several times a year and thereby distinguished both from the weekly market [9. 147, 149] and from the trade fair, whose focus was wider, even international. Like the trade fair (German  Messe), the annual fair - which took place at a designated marketplace and sometimes had its own specific market area, even its own buildings - was associated with a church festival (dedicated to Christ, Mary, or a saint) and took p…
Date: 2019-10-14

Trade

(8,080 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Pfister, Ulrich
1. Background Trade denotes the frequent, systematic transfer of property rights or ownership (Property) of goods, as a rule by the use of money (Money economy). Trade can involve the institution of a market but does not have to. Before 1850, the European and extra-European economies were predominantly subsistence economies – that is, the production of agricultural and industrial goods to meet personal needs in the context of a household economy dominated the production and marketing of commercial…
Date: 2022-11-07

Check

(670 words)

Author(s): North, Michael | Denzel, Markus A.
A check (British Engl. cheque, Fr. chèque) is a written bank deposit instruction by which the signatory commissions his or her bank or a public institution to pay out the amount of money indicated on the check from his account to another person . The development and dissemination of the check was part of the elaboration of cash-freepayment transactions in the late Middle Ages and early modern period. The word check derives etymologically from Ital. scacco (“treasure”), as does Engl. “exchequer,” which in turn goes back to Arab. sakk, a type of payment instruction [1. 555].Deposit instruct…
Date: 2019-10-14

Staple

(1,218 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. BasicsAn outgrowth of a storage right in a…
Date: 2022-08-17

Regional trade

(666 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
Regional trade comprises commercial activities occurring, geographically speaking, between the two poles of the essentially local confines of the retail trade and the long-distance trade over substantial distances (Trade, Long-distance). It therefore denotes the trade within a single economic region, or between two or more regions, as often limited by the available (preindustrial) transportation possibilities (Traffic and transport). Merchants often specialized in regional trade when …
Date: 2021-03-15

Counting-house

(826 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
Traditionally a counting-house has been understood as the scriptorium or shop (in modern language, the office) of medieval and early modern merchants. The term goes back to French  comptoir (“counter,” from Latin  computare, “count,” “calculate”), which suggests an original reference to a table or desk used for writing or trading. The counting-house became a central feature of commercial activity in the high Middle Ages, when merchants no longer traveled with their merchandise but settled in one place. With increasing literac…
Date: 2019-10-14

Interest (banking)

(1,037 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Definition and formsThe term  interest (French  intérêt; see  Interest), in earlier Latin sources often called  interesse, contrasts with German  Zins – from Latin  census, “valuation (of wealth),” “tribute.” Until well into the 18th century, it meant compensation for both the loan of money or movables (Loan for consumption [mutuum]) and the use of land or immovables (lease or rent interest, ground rent, rent charge; see Peasant property rights; Services, peasant), later it normally meant only the former (see also…
Date: 2019-10-14

Share

(1,649 words)

Author(s): Walter, Rolf | Denzel, Markus A.
1. StocksThe term  share denotes the legal relationship between the shareholder and the joint stock company. The share represents both a fraction of the original capital and an equity interest on the part of the shareholder. Today, the share documents both property rights (e.g. entitlement to earnings, subscription rights) and administrative rights (e.g. voting rights). The form of participation through shares was invented by the Netherlands East India Company in 1602 (East India companies). The first shares were made …
Date: 2022-08-17

Commercial revolution

(655 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
The term commercial revolution was introduced by Raymond de Roover in 1942 [2]; it is used in studies of economic history for epochal changes relating to the history of trade, when commercial innovations were concentrated in a short space of time, thus triggering an advance in the long-term development of trade. De Roover set the commercial revolution of the Middle Ages in the 13th century, while modern scholars prefer to speak of a period from the late 12th century to the 14th. During the medieval commercial revolution, Italy witnessed the introduction of cashless payment transactions (Bill of exchange), double-entry bookkeeping (Bookkeeping, double-entry), and marine insurance. These developments laid the groundwork for the commercial rise of Europe, beginning in the late Middle Ages, which in turn became one of the cen…
Date: 2019-10-14

Trading cycle

(912 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Pfister, Ulrich
1. Historical terminologyThe term trading cycle denotes both short-term and long-term fluctuations in the business volume of individual markets and the trading volume between markets, including both goods and financial instruments. Economists frequently considered (and consider) the pre-industrial period as a “prologue to business cycles” (see Industrial cycle [business cycle]) [2. 134]. At least until the 1950s, this was “characterized as a history of crises, which it was widely believed – usually as commercial crises – at a precapitalist st…
Date: 2022-11-07

Import

(890 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. DefinitionImport is the portion of external trade (Trade, external) that involves the transfer of goods from a foreign economic area into one’s own and the related services (warehousing, dispatch, etc.); it is thus complementary to export.Markus A. Denzel2. RestrictionsAn import ban or embargo is a government decree prohibiting (for example) the import of raw materials, foodstuffs, manufactured goods, or luxuries. Such bans have been common since antiquity, especially vis-à-vis hostile nations, but it was not until the era of mercantilism that they became an…
Date: 2019-10-14

Endorsement

(957 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Definition and functionAn endorsement is a signature written on the back (Italian, in dosso or in dorso) of a bill of exchange that entitles a person not previously involved in the bill to present it for payment. The endorsement effectively transferred the demand for payment derived from the bill to another person, which the signature written  in dosso confirmed. By means of endorsement, bills of exchange became a circulable form of paper currency. Like the bill of exchange itself (at the latest since the early 15th century), the endorsement developed among Italian merchants. The endorsement is the most significant innovation in the area of cashless payment transactions in the early modern period. For the first time, it made it possible to transfer debt instruments to third parties, which neither Roman, German, Islamic, nor canon law had provided for.The order clause, which made it possible to transfer credit instruments and certificates of debt since the late 14t…
Date: 2019-10-14

Pedlary

(1,292 words)

Author(s): Radeff, Anne | Denzel, Markus A.
1. General“Pedlary is a form of commercial enterprise in which the tradesman goes from place to place outside his own domicile peddling goods he has brought with him (actual pedlary), offering certain commercial services (scissors grinders, tinkers, etc.), or buying up goods (collecting rags, bones, scrap metal)” [1]; cited from [11…
Date: 2020-10-06

Trading exchange

(706 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
Commodity trading was the original form and function of the bourse. Since the early 15th century, people traded fungible commodities like grain, coffee, sugar, and spices sight unseen, but also bills of exchange and securities of all kinds. Unlike trade fairs, for example, bourse trading took place throughout the year and was concentrated in space and time – the participating merchants, who in many cases were governed by specific statutes, assembled in a particular place at scheduled times. Depe…
Date: 2022-11-07

Price lists

(1,052 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Definition and evolutionPrice lists, that is, formalized lists of prices or rate sheets, hand-written and later printed, constituted the earliest type of trade and financial journal; each consisted of just one or two pages. Such price lists are a major source for price quotations, demand quotations, and exchange rate quotations on the European and Levantine markets from the late 16th century to the 19th. As a rule, price lists are dated precisely and therefore provide exact information about wha…
Date: 2021-03-15

Factory (trading post)

(1,564 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Häberlein, Mark
1. Europe The term  factory was much more common in Europe in the high and late Middle Ages than in the early modern period. The Italian word  fattoria, the etymon of the loanword, first appears in connection with the great Tuscan trading companies of the high Middle Ages; it denoted a fortified outpost or “branch” of a trading company in a foreign commercial center, headed by a factor (Italian 
Date: 2019-10-14

Rent, annuity

(1,065 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A. | Holzhey, Alexandra
1. PrinciplesBefore the advent of social insurance in the second half of the 19th century (see Old age, provision for; Pension), an annuity rent was a payment occurring at regular intervals to a recipient having transferred an amount of capital (principal sum), but not land (land rent; socage), to a third party. It thus to an extent corresponded to interest paid on the capital (but did not count towards paying off a debt), and therefore constituted an important instrument for avoiding the prohibition on usury (see also Interest [banking]).Three main types of annuity rent are d…
Date: 2021-08-02

Fugger family

(1,091 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Rise of the dynasty up to the 16th century The Fuggers of Augsburg were among the most famous of entrepreneurs doing business in the German area in the early modern era. In 1367, Hans Fugger immigrated to Augsburg and set himself up as a fustian weaver and merchant; his son Jakob I. Fugger, founder of the “Fuggers of the lily” branch of the family, was primarily known as a business magnate. His son Jakob II (nicknamed “the Rich”) was the one who created a Europe-wide enterprise from those comparatively…
Date: 2019-10-14

Payment transactions

(2,155 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. General…
Date: 2020-10-06

Export

(770 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
Export is the portion of external trade that entails the delivering of goods from the home economic zone into another (foreign) one, and the services connected with this process (warehousing, dispatch, etcetera; on the details, see Trade, external).…
Date: 2019-10-14

Customs duties

(1,899 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. TerminologyThe term  duty (German  Zoll, from Late Latin  teloneum/ telonium, “toll house, customs house”) denotes a fee levied when goods are transported across a customs boundary – whether within a state (internal tariff) or between two states (external tariff). Internal tariffs were levied primarily in situations where bypassing a customs stations would have been very expensive or impossible for the dealer or carrier. In land transport, this took place at major bridges (bridge toll), fords, tunnels…
Date: 2019-10-14

Professionalization

(4,625 words)

Author(s): Ehmer, Josef | Pfister, Ulrich | Denzel, Markus A. | Hübner, Marita
1. The concept of professionThe term “profession” (from Latin professio, “public acknowledgment,” “public register,” hence “business publicly avowed”; Industrial trades and crafts; Profession) was adopted in the Romance languages and Middle English, then in German in the 16th century. It has never denoted all occupations, but invariably a specific set of them, the spectrum varying from one European cultural sphere to another. Early modern and contemporary English tends to reserve the term for academic, …
Date: 2021-03-15

Commercial correspondence

(618 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, as a consequence of the commercial revolution economic and trade activity increased sharply, the money economy began to take hold (once more), and new techniques were developed for trade and payment transactions (see Bill of exchange); as a result, the need for communication between merchants increased substantially. Now, however, they no longer communicated primarily orally in the course of personal meetings; with the emergence of the settled counting-house merch…
Date: 2019-10-14

Salt

(4,179 words)

Author(s): Fessner, Michael | Piasecki, Peter | Denzel, Markus A. | Sanz Lafuente, Gloria
1. Extraction 1.1. IntroductionSalt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is an essential foodstuff (see below, 2.). Sufficient, regular intake of salt is a prerequisite of life for the human organism. The extraction of salt and its trade and distribution have therefore been of outstanding importance since prehistoric times. Historically known as “white gold,” table salt in particular was a valuable commodity (see below, 2.), and for many districts and regions, possession of salt deposits and production areas (M…
Date: 2021-08-02

Trade fair

(1,730 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Definition and medieval background foire fiera fiesta forum feria MesseWorship Ite, missa estmarket Messe JahrmarktFair, annual Messenmerchantscurrencypayment transactionsEndorsementMarket rights[3]Trade, Long-distancetrademerchants Trade fairs usually helped to connect economic regions at different stages of development and contributed to economic accommodation between them. If both economic areas had attained similar levels of development, the trade fairs that brought them together lost their function and sign…
Date: 2022-11-07

Indossament

(850 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Begriff und FunktionI. bezeichnet einen auf die Rückseite (ital. in dosso oder in dorso) eines Wechsels geschriebenen Vermerk, der eine am bisherigen Wechselgeschäft noch nicht beteiligte Person ermächtigt, den Wechsel zu präsentieren. Mithilfe des I. wurde folglich die aus dem Wechsel herzuleitende Forderung einem anderen übertragen, was die in dosso geleistete Unterschrift bekräftigte. Unter Verwendung des I. wurde der Wechsel zu einem zirkulationsfähigen Papier. Wie der Wechsel selbst entwickelte sich (spätestens seit dem beginnenden 15. …
Date: 2019-11-19

Handelsusancen

(665 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
H. (von ital. usanza oder uso, »Brauch«, »Gepflogenheit«) sind gewohnheitsrechtliche Übereinkommen oder Handelsbräuche zwischen Kaufleuten, die verschiedene Teilbereiche von Handels-Geschäften betreffen. Sie waren seit dem hohen MA aus unterschiedlichen Bedürfnissen und Notwendigkeiten heraus entstanden und wurden traditionellerweise beibehalten, so z. B. die Art, wie Weizenpreise notiert wurden.An einzelnen Handelsplätzen (Messen oder Städten) gab es – bisweilen erheblich – unterschiedliche H.; für einen Kaufmann war es unabdingbar notwen…
Date: 2019-11-19

Scheck

(606 words)

Author(s): North, Michael | Denzel, Markus A.
Ein Sch. (engl. cheque, franz. chèque) ist eine schriftliche Bankdepotanweisung, durch die der Anweisende seine Bank oder eine öffentliche Institution beauftragt, aus seinem Guthaben den auf dem Sch. vermerkten Geldbetrag an eine andere Person auszuzahlen. Die Entwicklung und Verbreitung des Sch. war Teil der Entfaltung des bargeldlosen Zahlungsverkehrs in SpätMA und Nz. Das Wort Sch. leitet sich etymologisch von ital. scacco (»Schatz«) ab, ebenso wie das engl. exchequer (»Fiskus«, »Schatz«), das wiederum auf arab. sakk, eine Art Zahlungsanweisung, zurückgeht [1. 555].Depot…
Date: 2019-11-19

Zins

(911 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. Begriff und FormenDer Begriff Z. – von lat. census »(Vermögens-)Schätzung«, »Abgabe« –, in älteren Quellen vielfach lat. interesse genannt (daher engl. interest, franz. intérêt; vgl. Interesse), bezeichnete bis ins 18. Jh. das Entgelt sowohl für die Überlassung eines Geld- oder Sach-Darlehens als auch für die Nutzung von Boden oder Immobilien (Pacht- oder Miet-Z., Grund- und Erb-Z.; vgl. Bäuerliche Besitzrechte; Leistungen, bäuerliche), seither in der Regel nur noch Ersteres (vgl. auch Anleihe; Kredit). Insbes. in den bäuerlichen Gemeinschaften war die Bezahlung…
Date: 2019-11-19

Stapel

(1,086 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. GrundlagenHervorgegangen aus einem Niederlagsrecht an einem natürlichen Handels-Platz, nahm der S. bereits im HochMA Zwangscharakter an: Die durchreisenden Kaufleute wurden verpflichtet, an einem bestimmten Ort – häufig einer Flussquerung oder einer Straßenkreuzung – ihre Waren für einen bestimmten Zeitraum niederzulegen (d. h. zu »stapeln«), um sie der ortsansässigen Bevölkerung zum Verkauf anzubieten. Damit konnte die Verpflichtung einhergehen, die Waren nur an diesem Platz und an keinem anderen zu verkaufen, wie dies etwa die Hanse ab 1309 mehrfach der Stadt Brügge f…
Date: 2019-11-19

Professionalisierung

(4,095 words)

Author(s): Ehmer, Josef | Pfister, Ulrich | Denzel, Markus A. | Hübner, Marita
1. Der Begriff der ProfessionDer Begriff der Profession (= Pn.; von lat. professio, ›Gewerbe‹, ›Beruf‹, ›Stand‹, ›öffentliches Bekenntnis‹) wurde in die roman. Sprachen, ins Angelsächsische und seit dem 16. Jh. auch ins Deutsche übernommen. Er bezeichnet nicht sämtliche berufsförmigen Tätigkeiten, sondern ein spezifisches, in den verschiedenen europ. Kulturräumen unterschiedliches Spektrum. Im nzl. wie im gegenwärtigen Englisch werden unter professions v. a. akademische bzw. gelehrte und meist freie Berufe verstanden. Im SpätMA fielen Geistliche, Juris…
Date: 2019-11-19

Außenhandel

(1,771 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
1. DefinitionA. ist im Gegensatz zum Binnenhandel der Teil des Handels, der Güter über die Grenzen eines Landes importiert (Einfuhr) oder exportiert (Ausfuhr) oder Güter einführt, um sie möglichst schnell und bisweilen bearbeitet oder veredelt wieder auszuführen (Reexport). In diesem Sinne betrieb jedes Territorium des frühnzl. Heiligen Röm. Reiches, das mit seinen Nachbarterritorien handelte, A. Wo der A. im Wesentlichen Entrepôt-Handel war (Stapelplatz), d. h. wo der größte Teil der Einfuhren zwischengelagert und r…
Date: 2019-11-19

Kommerzielle Revolutionen

(598 words)

Author(s): Denzel, Markus A.
Der 1942 von Raymond de Roover eingeführte Begriff [2] K. R. wird in der wirtschaftshistor. Forschung für epochale Veränderungen im Bereich der Handels-Geschichte benutzt, wenn sich kommerzielle Innovationen in einem bestimmten Zeitraum bündelten und damit einen Schub in der langfristigen Entwicklung des Handels auslösten. De Roover setzte die K. R. des MA im 13. Jh. an, während die moderne Forschung eher von einer Zeitspanne vom späten 12. bis zum 14. Jh. ausgeht. Während der ma. K. R. wurden in Italien der bargeldlose Zahlungsverkehr (Wechsel), die doppelte Buchführung un…
Date: 2019-11-19
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