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[German Version] Sextus Empiricus, a Pyrrhonian Skeptic (Skepticism: I) and empirical physician (D.L. IX 116), probably lived at the end of the 2nd century ce. His Outlines of Pyrrhonian Skepticism ( PH) (book I) contains a presentation of Pyrrhonian Skepticism and – like his Against the Dogmatists (5 books) – a discussion of dogmatic epistemology, natural philosophy, and ethics from a Skeptical perspective (books II and III). His Against the Professors ( Adversus mathematicos, 6 books) examines six of the liberal arts (Artes liberales). Sextus’s works are important …

[German Version] In the context of natural sciences (Hippocrates, Aristotle), the Greek word ὑπόστασις/ hypóstasis has the meaning “underlayer, support or sediment from a fluid.” The metaphorical philosophical meaning “enduring state,” “existence,” “reality” in contrast to the imaginary (Ocellos; Demetrius Laco) is probably related. In philosophy, the hypostasis concept very closely approximates the ousia concept (Substance). Apparently not in use in the terminology of the Hellenistic schools, hypostasis has meanwhile been distinguished as “percep…

[German Version] I. Antiquity 1. Western philosophy is usually held to begin with the Ionian philosophers of nature (Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Natural philosophy), even if they described their activity less as philosophy than as “history.” The first to refer to himself specifically as a philosopher is said to have been Pythagoras, but this may have been a retrospective reference. The word ϕιλοσοϕεῖν/ philosopheín, “to philosophize,” occurs first in the 5th century bce. Initially, like sophia, it denoted a non-specific interest in a form of knowledge, or familia…

[German Version] (born c. 490 bce), lived to be about 70; the date and circumstances of his death are unknown. Accounts of a trial for impiety, banishment, and death by drowning are doubtful. According to Plato, he was highly respected at an advanced age. He was a Sophist (Sophistic school) who lectured for money. He traveled to Sicily as an itinerant teacher; while there he may have collaborated on the laws for the Panhellenic colony of Thurioi founded in 444/443 bce. Protagoras is described as a teacher of virtue and political skills. He is known for his statements that wh…

[German version] (Greek ἀπορία [ aporía], opposite εὐπορία [ euporía], Latin dubitatio) means hopelessness, distress, embarrassment and neediness (Xen. An. 5,6,10; Hdt. 1,72,2; Thuc. 1,11,11). In the Meno, Plato adds the inability to procure necessities to the list of meanings (Cra. 415c 5; Symp. 203e, Men. 78c ff.). In Plato's dialogues, aporia describes a state of being (the experience of a need) as well as the cause for this state (the inherent philosophical problem). Aporia is the result of an elenctic conversation, i…

(Greek εἰρωνεία, eirōneía, orig. ‘dissimulation’, Lat. simulatio, dissimulatio, illusio). [German version] I. Rhetoric Like e.g. metaphor ( Comparison), irony is classed in the rhetorical system among the tropes ( Figures) (Rhet. Her. 4,46 assigns it to allegory). While metaphor works through the similarity between what is said and what is meant, irony is characterized by a relationship of contrast ( contrarium) (Anaximen. Ars Rhetorica = [Arist.] Rh. Al. 21,1,1434a, 17f.; Quint. Inst. 8,6,54-56; Aquila Rhetor 7 p. 24,21f. H). Irony is context dependen…

(Ἐπίκουρος; Epíkouros). [German version] A. Life E. was born in 342/1 BC on Samos, where his father Neocles, an Athenian citizen from the deme Gargettos, had moved as a cleric in 352. His birthday was the 20th of Gamelion [1]. He had three brothers, Neocles, Chaeredemus and Aristobulus. His early interest in philosophy is attested. He associated with the Platonist Pamphilus (Diog. Laert. 10,14), and then on Teos listened to lectures given by the Democritean and acquaintance of the sceptic Pyrrhon, Nau…

(Κωλώτης; Kōlṓtēs). [German version] [1] Sculptor from Heraclea in Elis Sculptor from Heraclea in Elis. C. was a pupil of  Phidias, and worked together with him, e.g. on the Zeus at Olympia. He worked principally in gold and ivory. In gold-ivory C. created an Asclepius in Kyllene and, according to Pliny (Plin. HN 35,54), an Athena in Elis, which according to Pausanias (Paus. 6,26,3), however, was attributed to Phidias; as this Athena's shield is said to have been painted by  Panaenus, a collective effort …

The term 'genres of philosophical literature' refers to the forms and linguistic tools of presentation used by ancient philosophy. It is not always possible to make a clear distinction between philosophy and non-philosophical genres with respect to the use of specialized terminology (which is sometimes consciously avoided: Pl. Tht. 182a; cf. the dispute between Epicurus and Metrodorus [3] of Lampsacus, Epicurus De natura B 28 [1. 101, 218]) or logical rigour. It is essential to consider the cont…

(Ζήνων/ Zḗnōn.) [German version] [1] Z. of Elea Eleatic philosopher, 5th cent. BC (Son of Teleutagoras). Eleatic philosopher of the 5th cent. BC; a pupil and intimate friend of Parmenides who became famous for his paradoxes. According to the Suda (29 A 2 DK), Z. wrote many books; but his Λόγοι ( Lógoi, 'Arguments', 40 according to Proclus, 29 A 15 DK) probably belonged to a single book, the one he read aloud to his closest circles in Athens (cf. Pl. Prm. 127c-d). In the lost dialogue Sophistes, Aristotle (Aristoteles [6]) declares Z. to have been the 'inventor' ( protos heuretes ) of dialectics (29 A 10 and A 1 DK, cf. 29 A 2 DK). The judgment is understandable insofar as, in this text, Z. was pursuing – but not, as the young Socrates remarks [2] in the Parmenides (Pl. Prm. 128a-b), stating in so many words – the goal of defending Parmenides' philosophy by refuting pluralism, and demonstrating that the assumption of a plurality (τὰ πόλλα, tà pólla) of different entities contains contradictions [1]. Interestingly, it was poss…

(griech. εἰρωνεία, eirōneía, urspr. “Kleintuerei”, lat. simulatio, dissimulatio, illusio). [English version] I. Rhetorik Die I. wird im rhet. System wie z.B. die Metapher (Vergleich) zu den Tropen (Tropus) gerechnet (Rhet. Her. 4,46 ordnet sie der Allegorie zu). Während die Metapher durch Ähnlich…

(Ἐπίκουρος). [English version] A. Leben E. wurde 342/1 v.Chr. auf Samos geboren, wohin sein Vater Neokles, Athener Bürger aus dem Demos Gargettos, 352 als Kleruche gekommen war. Geburtstag war der 20. Gamelion [1]. Er hatte drei Brüder, Neokles, Chairedemos und Aristobulos. Frühes Interesse an Philos. ist bezeugt. E. schloß sich dem Platoniker Pamphilos an (Diog. Laert. 10,14), hörte dann auf Teos den Demokriteer und Bekannten des Skeptikers Pyrrhon, Nausiphanes. Mit 18 Jahren ging E. für zwei Jahre nach Athen, …

(Ζήνων.) [English version] [1] Z. aus Elea eleat. Philosoph, 5. Jh. v. Chr. (Sohn des Teleutagoras). Eleatischer Philosoph des 5. Jh. v. Chr., Schüler und enger Vertrauter des Parmenides; er wurde berühmt für seine Paradoxe. Z. verfaßte laut Suda (29 A 2 DK) mehrere Bücher, doch gehörten seine Λόγοι ( Lógoi, ‘Argumente, 40 laut Proklos, 29 A 15 DK) wohl zu einem einzigen Buch - jenem, das er in engem Kreise in Athen vorlas (vgl. Plat. Parm. 127c-d). Aristoteles [6] erklärt Z. in dem verlorenen Dialog ‘Sophistes zum “Erfinder” ( prṓtos heuretḗs ) der Dialektik (2…

(Κωλώτης). [English version] …

[English version] Aporematik (griech. ἀπορία, Gegensatz εὐπορία, lat. dubitatio) bedeutet Ausweglosigkeit, Not, Verlegenheit und Bedürftigkeit (Xen. An. 5,6,10; Hdt. 1,72,2; Thuk. 1,11,11). Bei Platon kommt im Menon der Aspekt der Unfähigkeit, etwas beschaffen zu können, hinzu (Krat. 415c 5; symp. 203e, Men. 78c ff.). In Platons Dialogen bezeichnet die A. sowohl eine Zuständlichkeit (Empfinden eines Mangels) als auch den Anlaß dieses Zustandes (die inhaltliche Problematik eines philos. Sachverhaltes). A. ist Resultat eines elenktischen Gesprächs, in dem sich der scheinbar Wissende in Widersprüche verwickelt, die Fragwürdigkeit seiner Wissensgewißheit erkennt und den Wissensanspruch aufgibt. Bisweilen verbunden mit spielerischer Zurückhaltung von Wissen (ironischer Aspekt), oder verursacht durch Unregelmäßigkeiten in Sokrates' Argumentationsweise (taktischer Aspekt), ist Hauptursache der A. das Fehlen des zur Verteidigung der Thesen notwendigen Wissens bei Sokrates' Partnern. Kommentierende Hinweise durch Sokrates legen die Möglichkeit einer Überwindung der A. im Sinne Platons nahe [1. 78 …

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