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[English Version] (gest.1115 Antwerpen). Asketischer Wanderprediger, vermutlich Laie, zeitweilig in der Umgebung Graf Roberts II. von Flandern. 1112 soll er sich in Rom um eine Lösung der Inseln an der Scheldemündung (Seeland) aus dem Bistum Utrecht und um ihre Unterstellung unter das Bistum Thérouanne (Erzbistum Reims) bemüht haben. Auf der Heimreise vom Erzbf. von Köln verhaftet, wurde er vom Utrechter Domklerus der Ketzerei beschuldigt. Zu den klischeehaften Vorwürfen gehört die Ablehnung des K…

[English Version] Oxford, Universität. In dem erstmals 912 erwähnten, in angelsächsischer Zeit gegründeten, von den Normannen mit Mauern umgebenen Ort am Schnittpunkt wichtiger Verkehrswege gab es schon im 12.Jh. Schulen für die artes liberales, Recht und Theol., aus denen sich an der Wende zum 13.Jh. die U. entwickelte. Nach einem Konflikt mit der Stadtgemeinde verließen 1209 die meisten Magister und Studenten O.; ein Teil von ihnen gründete die U. Cambridge. Mit der Rückkehr eines anderen Teils n…

[English Version] (Manducator; frühes 12.Jh. Troyes – 1178/79 Paris). Nach Studien in Troyes (hier seit 1147 Dekan der Kathedrale und Kanoniker des Stifts St. Loup), Tours und Paris wurde er 1159 Nachfolger seines Lehrers Petrus Lombardus an der Domschule von Paris, 1168 Kanzler von Notre-Dame. In seinen letzten Jahren lebte er im Chorherrenstift St. Victor. Aus seiner Lehrtätigkeit sind zahlreiche – meist ungedr. – Werke erhalten: Glossen (Glossa ordinaria) zu den Evv., zum Ps.-Komm. und (erstmal…

[English Version] 1.  Giovanni (24.2.1463 Mirandola bei Modena – 17.11.1494 Florenz). Der Sohn des Grafen von Mirandola studierte seit 1477 Kirchenrecht, artes liberales, Philos. und Lit. v.a. in Bologna, Ferrara, Padua, Paris und Perugia. Neben Griech. lernte er auch Hebr. und Arab. Wiederholt besuchte er Florenz, wo er sich mit Lorenzo de' Medici und seinem Kreis anfreundete, bes. mit Marsilio Ficino, Angelo Poliziano (1454–1494) und Girolamo Benivieni (1453–1542). Nachdem er sich in wenigen Jahre…

[English Version] I. Universität 1. Die U.T. wurde 1477 im Verlauf der sog. »zweiten Gründungswelle« dt. U. durch Graf Eberhard im Bart als württembergische Landesuniversität im südlichen Teil des ehemals zweigeteilten Landes gegründet (päpstl. Privileg 1476, kaiserliche Bestätigung 1484). Zur materiellen Absicherung der Professuren verlegte der Graf acht der zehn Chorherrenpfründen und zwei Drittel der Einkünfte des Säkularkanonikerstifts Sindelfingen an die Pfarrkirche St. Georg von T., führte ab…

[English Version] von Auxerre (nach 841 – 2.5. wohl 908 Paris), Mönch des Klosters St. Germain in Auxerre, hier auch Nachfolger seines Lehrers Heiricus, ca.893 an der Erneuerung der Schule von Reims tätig, seit 900 Lehrer in Paris. Vf. mehr als 20 im MA viel gelesene, aber meist ungedr. gebliebene Werke: Komm. zu antiken und frühma. Grammatikern und Dichtern, zu Gen und Pss, zu Boet.cons. und Opuscula sacra sowie eine Meßerklärung. Ulrich Köpf Bibliography L'école carolingienne d'Auxerre, hg. von D. Iogna-Prat/C. Jeudy/G. Lobrichon, 1991.

[English Version] Speculum humanae salvationis, bedeutendstes und am weitesten verbreitetes typologisches, Texte und Bilder miteinander verbindendes Werk des Spät-MA. Es knüpft an den heilsgesch. Aufbau der Biblia pauperum (Armenbibel) an und erweitert ihn thematisch bes. um Szenen des Marienlebens und der Passion Jesu sowie durch Ausgestaltung der Texte zu Traktaten. Titel (S.h.s.) und Jahr (1324) der »nova compilatio« sind schon in frühen Hsn. des 14.Jh. bezeugt. Ob sie, wie lange angenommen, vo…

[English Version] . Als Summa (S.; Summae, später auch: Summula[e]) wird seit dem 12.Jh. die wiss. Lit. bez., in der das gesamte wichtige Wissen eines Sachgebiets knapp zusammengefaßt ist (Robert von Melun: singulorum brevis comprehensio). Dabei kann es sich um verschiedene Disziplinen handeln: S. grammaticae (grammaticalis), S. super Priscianum, S. dictaminis oder artis notariae, S. logicae (Summulae dialectices, logicales, logicae), S. de modis significandi, S. philosophiae, Summula philosophiae…

[English Version] (1095/1100 bei Novara, Lombardei – 21./22.7.1160 Paris). Nach Studien in Oberitalien und Reims kam P. um 1135 als Außenseiter nach Paris, wo er schon um 1145 zu den bedeutendsten Lehrern der Domschule gehörte. Am 28.7.1159 wurde er zum Bf. von Paris geweiht, konnte sich in diesem Amt aber nicht profilieren. Aus seiner Lehrtätigkeit gingen hervor: Glossen (Glossa ordinaria) zu den Psalmen (PL 191, 55–1296) und zu den Paulusbriefen, auch als »magna (maior) glossatura« bez. (PL 191,…

[English Version] (der Hl.; gest. ca.617 [?]) soll zur Zeit Bf. Magnerichs von Trier (gest. nach 587) im Bergland zw. Hunsrück und Pfälzer Wald als Einsiedler gelebt haben. Im Kalendar von Stablo (10.Jh.) ist erstmals die kultische Verehrung seines Grabs an dem später St. Wendel genannten Ort bezeugt, dessen spätgotische Hallenkirche (Weihe 1360) zur Aufnahme seiner Reliquien erbaut wurde. W. wird seit dem Spät-MA bes. als Patron von Hirten und Vieh verehrt. Ulrich Köpf Bibliography A. Selzer, St. W., 21962.

[English Version] . Bereits im antiken Latein bez. das Verb reformare und das zugehörige Subst. reformatio eine positiv gewertete Umgestaltung: sowohl die Wiederherstellung eines früheren, inzw. verlorengegangenen Zustandes von Menschen (moralisch z.B. Plinius d.J., Panegyricus 53,1: corruptos depravatosque mores […] reformare et corrigere; körperlich z.B. Theodorus Priscianus, Euporiston 1,38: oculorum aciem reformare) oder von Dingen (z.B. Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, 40,5: templum r…

[English Version] (ca.1214/1220 England – ca.1292). Nach dem Studium der artes in Oxford und vielleicht in Paris (ca.1236/1240 M.A.) lehrte R. bis etwa 1247 an der Pariser Artistenfakultät. Es ist unsicher, ob er dann nach England zurückkehrte und wo er (wohl vor 1256) in den Franziskanerorden eintrat. Nach theol. Studien (in Oxford?) war er um 1257 wieder in Paris. Hier gewann er um 1263 in Kardinal Gui Foucois (Guy de Foulques u. ä.), dem späteren Papst Clemens IV. (1265–1268), einen Gönner, dem…

[English Version] von Arbrissel (um 1145 Arbrissel bei Rennes – 25.2.1116 Priorat Orsan-en-Berry). Der Sohn eines Erbpfarrers von Arbrissel trat nach Studien in Paris als Kleriker in den Dienst Bf. Silvesters von Rennes. Nach erneuten Studien in Angers (seit 1078) erlebte er die Bekehrung zu asketischem Leben, zog sich als Einsiedler in den Wald von Craon (Anjou) zurück und gründete hier 1095 ein Kollegiatstift, verließ es aber wieder, um (seit 1096 mit Erlaubnis Papst Urbans II.) als Bußprediger d…

[English Version] ist eine auf Passion und Kreuzestod Jesu (Passion/Passionsüberlieferung/Passionsgeschichte) ausgerichtete Gestalt christl. Frömmigkeit. Die Erinnerung an den Ausgang des Lebens Jesu war in der christl. Gemeinde immer gegenwärtig – trotz aller Kritik durch Juden und Heiden (1Kor 1,23), die einerseits die christl. Auffassung des Kreuzes (Kreuz/Kreuz Christi) als Siegeszeichen förderte und andererseits eine bildliche Darstellung der Kreuzigung Jesu bis ins frühe 5.Jh. verhinderte. I…

[English Version] . Anonymer Traktat aus dem späten 14.Jh., in acht ma. Hsn. überliefert. Den ersten Druck veranstaltete Luther 1516 nach einer (verlorenen) frgm. (WA 1,152f.: »Eyn geystlich edles Buchleynn«), den zweiten 1518 nach einer (ebenfalls verlorenen) vollständigen Hs. (ebd. 375–379: »Eyn deutsch Theologia«). Seit dem Nachdr. Augsburg 1518 (»Theologia Teütsch«) hat sich der Titel »Th. d.« eingebürgert. Der erste moderne Druck erschien 1843 nach einer ehemals Bronnbacher Hs., deren Prolog …

[English Version] . Über dem Meßgewand getragene, auf den Schultern liegende ringförmige Stola aus weißer, mit schwarzen Seidenkreuzen besetzter Wolle, von der auf Brust und Rücken jeweils ein kurzer Streifen mit schwarzem Endstück herabhängt (Gewänder, liturgische). Der wohl aus der Schärpe spätkaiserzeitlicher röm. Beamter entwickelte liturgische Ornat steht seit dem frühen 6.Jh. dem Papst zu. Dieser verleiht das P. seit dem 9.Jh. an Erzbischöfe, die es aber nur an bestimmten Tagen beim Pontifik…

[English Version] heißen heute sieben im Umkreis (suburbium) Roms liegende Diözesen, die meist eine wechselvolle Gesch. hatten: Albano, Frascati (an Stelle von Tusculum, das als Nachfolger von Labicum 1058–1197 faktisch und bis 1537 nominell Bischofssitz war), Ostia, Palestrina, Porto (durch Calixtus II. mit Santa Rufina [Silva Candida] vereinigt), Sabina (durch Eingliederung des Bistums Nomentum in das Bistum Forum Novum entstanden, 1925 mit Poggio Mirteto vereinigt), Velletri (1150 mit Ostia ver…

[English Version] (Guilelmus Parvus; um 1136 Bridlington, Yorkshire – 1198 Newburgh, ebd.). Als Kanoniker des 1145 gegründeten Augustiner-Chorherrenstifts Newburgh (Augustiner-Chorherren) vf. W. neben Predigten eine mariologische Hhld-Auslegung (Explanatio Sacri Epithalamii in Matrem Sponsi, hg. von J.C. Gorman, 1960) und eine engl. Gesch. (Historia Rerum Anglicarum, hg. von R. Howlett, 2 Bde., 1884/85), die nüchtern, genau und ausgewogen die Zeit von 1066–1198 (d.h. die Regierungszeit Heinrichs II. und Richards I. Löwenherz von England) darstellt. Ulrich Köpf Bib…

[English Version] von Böhmen (von Mailand; gest.1278/1281 Mailand). Einzige Quelle sind die Akten des 1300 postum gegen W. und ihre Anhänger geführten Inquisitionsprozesses, aus denen ihre hochadlige Herkunft aus Böhmen hervorzugehen scheint. Ihr Leben vor ihrer Ankunft in Mailand (zw. 1260 und 1270) ist unbekannt; doch soll sie einen Sohn gehabt haben. In Mailand, das nicht nur durch Streit mit anderen oberital. Städten und interne Parteikämpfe, sondern auch durch jahrelange Konflikte mit der röm.…

[English Version] (gest.10.9.1279 in Viterbo). Erstes sicheres Datum aus seinem Leben ist seine Wahl zum Provinzialmagister der engl. Dominikaner im September 1261. Von hier aus lassen sich frühere Daten erschließen: in den 30er Jahren Studium an der Pariser Artistenfakultät, ca.1237 M.A., Lehrtätigkeit in Paris bis Mitte der 40er Jahre, dann Rückkehr nach England und Eintritt in den Predigerorden, Studium der Theol. in Oxford (ca.1252–1254 Sentenzenvorlesung), 1254 Magister regens der Theol. Seit…

[English Version] . Die echte, nicht »rhetorische«, sondern auf eine problemlösende Antwort abzielende Frage (griech. ζη´τημα/zē´tēma, προ´βλημα/pro´blēma, α᾿πορι´α/apori´a, lat. quaestio) ist ein elementares Mittel rationaler Argumentation. Sie begegnet schon in vorchristl. Zeit bei den Griechen (seit dem sokratischen Fragen des platonischen Dialogs) wie im rabb. Judentum (im Gespräch zw. Lehrer und Schüler). Das Formulieren von Fragen wurde schon früh in der altkirchl. Theol. üblich (erster Höhepunkt bei Au…

[English Version] Subiaco, Ort in Latium, im Anienetal östlich von Rom. Hier soll sich Benedikt von Nursia zunächst als Eremit in einer Höhle (Sacro Speco), dann mit Gefährten in Räumen einer ehem. Villa Kaiser Neros (Kloster San Clemente) niedergelassen haben. In der Folgezeit soll er zehn weitere Klöster gegründet haben, bevor er sich um 529 nach Monte Cassino begab. Heute bestehen noch zwei von ihnen: San Benedetto (Sacro Speco) und – tiefer gelegen – Santa Scholastica (urspr. San Silvestro), d…

[English Version] . Zu den zentralen Forderungen der Wittenberger wie der Schweizer Reformation gehörte eine gründliche theol. Ausbildung aller künftigen Geistlichen. Während in luth. Territorien die reformierten theol. Fakultäten an vorhandenen Universitäten dieser Aufgabe dienten, fehlten in ref. Gebieten solche Einrichtungen zunächst weitgehend. Nur drei bestehende Volluniversitäten hatten zeitweise ref. Charakter: Heidelberg 1559–1578 und 1583–1622, Marburg 1605–1624 und wieder seit 1653, Fran…

[English Version] I. Zum Begriff Unter R. (von lat. reformatio) verstehen wir heute ausschließlich die durch M. Luther, U. Zwingli u.a. Reformatoren ausgelösten Vorgänge, die im Laufe des 16.Jh. zu einer bis heute fortdauernden Aufspaltung der abendländischen Christenheit führten. Bis ins 19.Jh. hinein hatte der Begriff dagegen noch die urspr., weite Bedeutung von Reform (Reformgedanke), unter die aber immer auch das Geschehen der R. subsumiert war. Erst das Aufkommen des franz. Wortes réforme im 17…

[English Version] I. Mittelalter Valdesi, d.h. Anhänger des Bürgers Valdes von Lyon, treten erstmals auf dem III. Laterankonzil 1179 ins Licht der Gesch.; dort baten sie vergeblich um Erlaubnis zu freier Predigt. 1180 beschworen Valdes und seine Gefährten (fratres) auf einer Synode in Lyon ein orth. Glaubensbekenntnis und verpflichteten sich zu einem Leben nach den Evangelischen Räten. Damit hatte sich die Gemeinschaft der »Armen von Lyon« öfftl. vorgestellt, die – wie andere rel. Bewegungen des 12…

[English Version] von Canterbury (602 Tarsus – 19.9.690 Canterbury [?]). Als der zum Nachfolger von Erzbf. Deusdedit von Canterbury bestimmte Wighard 667 in Rom gestorben war, weihte Papst Vitalinus 668 auf Vorschlag Hadrians (des Abts von Kloster Hiridanum bei Neapel) den gelehrten griech. Mönch Th. von Tarsus zu diesem Amt. Th. lebte damals in einer Gemeinschaft kilikischer Mönche im röm. Kloster St. Anastasius ad Aquas Salvias (später: Tre Fontane) am Südrand der Stadt. Über sein früheres Leben …

[English Version] I. Zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte Das Konzept einer Theologiegesch. (Thg.) ist zwar erst in der Neuzeit entstanden; Wurzeln der theologiegesch. Betrachtungsweise lassen sich aber in die Alte Kirche zurückverfolgen. Eine von ihnen ist die auch für die Dogmengeschichte grundlegende Doxographie von Häresien (ältestes erhaltenes Werk: Iren.haer.), eine andere die altkirchl. Literaturgeschichte/Literaturgeschichtsschreibung (: V., 2., a) seit Hier.vir.ill. (392). Doch erst im Zeitalter der…

[English Version] Der Orden der W. geht auf eine Mitte des 12.Jh. in der Toskana entstandene Eremitengemeinschaft (Mönchtum: III.) zurück. Ihr Gründer soll ein franz. Adliger Wilhelm gewesen sein, der nach einem militärischen Leben und wiederholten Wallfahrten 1145 zunächst in der Nähe von Pisa, dann im Bergtal von Malavalle bei Siena mit einem, später zwei Gefährten als Einsiedler in strengster Askese lebte. Nach seinem Tod am 10.2.1157 entstand an seinem Grab eine Eremitengemeinschaft, die nach …

[English Version] von Hirsau (1026 Bayern – 5.7.1091 Hirsau). Von seinen adligen Eltern als Oblate (: I.) dem Benediktinerkloster St.Emmeram in Regensburg übergeben, wurde W. hier durch Otloh von St.Emmeram unterrichtet. Noch in Regensburg vf. er zwei Schriften zum Quadrivium in Dialogform: »De astronomia« und »De musica«. 1069 als Abt nach Hirsau berufen (Weihe 1071), reformierte er das Kloster zunächst nach dem Vorbild von St.Emmeram, das zum Reformkreis von Gorze gehörte, seit 1076 aber unter de…

[English Version] heißen die räuberischen Seefahrer aus Skandinavien, die vom 8. – 11.Jh. weite Teile Europas heimsuchten. Schweden drangen über den Finnischen Meerbusen, Novgorod und Kiev bis zum Schwarzen Meer vor (Waräger). Norweger eroberten v.a. Schottland und den Norden und Osten Irlands, besiedelten Island und fuhren bis Grönland, Neufundland und Neuschottland. Dänen setzten sich zw. Oder- und Weichselmündung fest und landeten im Süden und Osten Englands sowie an der Mündung von Rhein, Sche…

[English Version] I. Anfänge Der erste Orden in der Gesch. des christl. Mönchtums (:III., 3., e) entstand dadurch, daß von dem burgundischen Benediktinerkloster (Benediktiner) Novum monasterium (seit 1119 Cistercium, franz. Cîteaux; davon die Selbstbez. Cistercienses) aus innerhalb weniger Jahre vier Tochterklöster gegründet wurden (»Primarabteien«: 1113 La Ferté, 1114 Pontigny, 1115 Clairvaux und Morimond), die untereinander und zus. mit den später von ihnen ausgegangenen Tochtergründungen einen dauerhaften Verband bildeten. Das Novum monasterium war 1098 ca…

[English Version] (1. Hälfte 12.Jh. Hosdenc bei Beauvais – 1197 Zisterzienserabtei Longpont bei Soissons). Nach Studien an der Domschule von Reims vor 1173 Kanoniker und Magister, seit 1183 auch Cantor an Notre-Dame von Paris. Die Wahl zum Bf. von Paris 1196 nahm P. nicht an. 1197 zum Dekan des Domkapitels von Reims gewählt, starb er auf der Reise dorthin. Von seiner Lehrtätigkeit zeugen zahlreiche, z.T. noch ungedruckte Werke: Glossen zum AT und NT; »Distinctiones« oder »Summa Abel« (Lexikon bibl…

[English Version] I. Zu Begriff und Wertung Das Subst. »Sch.« wird seit dem Aufkommen einer hist. Erforschung des MA im 19.Jh. als Sammelbegriff für eine bestimmte Art wiss. Arbeitens (bes. in Philosophie [: II.] und Theol. des MA) gebraucht. Das zugrundeliegende Adj. »scholastisch« (sch.) hat eine bis zu Aristoteles (pol., e.N.) zurückreichende Gesch. Die für den modernen Gebrauch von Sch. entscheidende Konzentration von griech. σχολαστικο´ς/lat. scholasticus auf den Bereich von Unterricht und Wiss. (»zur Schule gehörend«, »gebildet« u. ä.) vollzog sich s…

[English Version] . Als O. (observantes, fratres de observantia u. ä.) werden seit dem späten 14.Jh. jene reformwilligen Gruppen oder Richtungen im Mönchtum (: III.,4., b), v.a. in den Bettelorden und hier wieder bes. bei den Franziskanern, bez., die sich in internen Auseinandersetzungen um die rechte Lebensform gegen eingetretene Regelmilderungen und andere Arten der Anpassung (Konventualen) wandten und die strikte Befolgung der rigoros ausgelegten Regeln und anderer Vorschriften forderten (obser…

[English Version] . Sätze von inhaltlicher Bedeutung und autoritativem Charakter (griech. γn̆ω´μη/gnō´mē [seit Sophoc. Aias 1091] neben spezielleren Begriffen; lat. sententia [seit Cicero]) wurden schon in vorchristl. Zeit in lit.-rhetorischer Funktion verwendet und später zu bequemerem Gebrauch gesammelt (Gnomologion, verwandt mit Anthologia [Florilegium], z.B. Μεn̆α´n̆δρου γn̆ω˜μαι μοn̆ο´στιχοι/Menándrou gnō´mai monóstichoi [wohl im 2.Jh. v.Chr. begonnen und bis in byz. Zeit fortgeführt] oder Σε´ξτου γn̆ω˜μαι/Séxtou gnō´mai [um 200 n.Chr.]). In den trin…

[English Version] (gest. ca.1205/1218). Die spärliche Überlieferung erlaubt nur wenige sichere Aussagen über V.; ein Taufname (Petrus) wird nicht vor der 2. Hälfte des 14.Jh. genannt. Der wohlhabende Bürger aus Lyon scheint ca.1176/77 durch die Alexius-Legende oder in die Volkssprache übers. Bibeltexte zu einem apostolischen Leben bekehrt worden zu sein. Ob dabei dem Armutsideal oder dem Wunsch nach Predigttätigkeit Priorität zukommt, ist umstritten. Nach Versorgung seiner Frau und seiner beiden T…

[English Version] . Patrozinium ist das in der Regel durch eine Weihehandlung begründete geistl. Eigentums- und Herrschaftsverhältnis sowie die daraus folgende Schutzfunktion eines Patrons (meist eines Heiligen) über eine Kirche oder einen Altar, ein Land, eine Stadt oder ein Bistum, eine Personengruppe (sozialer Stand, adelige Familie, Beruf, Zunft, Bruderschaft, Universität, Kloster, Orden u. ä.) oder über eine einzelne Person. Als Gegenleistung für seinen Schutz wird dem Patron durch die Gläubi…

[English Version] . I. Der Begriff observantia bez. im klassischen Latein die rücksichtsvolle Verehrung von Mitmenschen, bes. von solchen, die uns an Alter, Weisheit und Würde überragen (Cic., De inventione 2,66.161), in der kaiserzeitlichen Latinität zudem die Beachtung von Bräuchen und Gesetzen (zur Verwandtschaft mit religio vgl.2Makk 6,11 Vulgata). Seit dem Früh-MA wurde der Begriff v.a. auf ein als Befolgung göttlicher Gebote verstandenes rel. Verhalten angewandt: einerseits allg. auf die Einh…

[German Version] The notion of a new Jerusalem, an eschatological city of God on Mount Zion is already developed in the Old Testament (Zion Pss; Isa 28:16; 54:11f.; Ezek 40:2; 48:30–35; etc.); it was further nurtured by early Judaism (Qumran; 4 Ezra; etc.). The tendency to separate the heavenly Jerusalem from the earthly one, already apparent in the OT texts, became stronger, especially after the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70 ce. Thus 2 Bar. 4:2–6 states that the true Jerusalem intended by God is not the visible city; it is instead the preexistent Jerusalem, …

[German Version] (Jan 31, 1911, Avesnes, France – Oct 27, 1993, Clervaux, Luxembourg), a Benedictine monk, was one of the most prolific medievalists of the second half of the 20th century. Having studied in Rome and Paris, he also lectured in various places (esp. in Rome). In 1941, after conducting research on the Scholasticism of the 13th to 15th centuries, Leclercq turned to the partly still unpublished monastic literature of the Middle Ages, especially of the 11th and 12th centuries. His extens…

[German Version] (died Sep 10, 1279, Viterbo). The first reliable date from his life is his election as provincial master of the English Dominicans in September 1261. Working back, earlier dates may be deduced: studies at the Parisian faculty of arts in the 1230s, M.A. around 1237, lectureships in Paris until the mid-1240s, then return to England and entry into the Order of Preachers, theological studies in Oxford (c. 1252–1254 ¶ lecturer on the Sentences), Magister regens of theology in 1254. Having been elected archbishop of Canterbury in 1272, Robert Kilwardby t…

[German Version] I. Terminology and Assessment Ever since the emergence of medieval studies in the 19th century, the noun Scholasticism has been used as a collective term for a particular kind of scholarly method, especially in medieval philosophy (II) and theology. The adjective scholastic, on which it is based, has a history going back to Aristotle ( Politica, Ethica Nicomachea). The focus of Greek σχολαστικός and Latin scholasticus on the realm of academic instruction (“related to schools,” “educated,” etc.), central to the modern use of scholasticism, had already taken place…

[German Version] Seat of a bishopric in the county of Kent, England. Situated at an important road junction during the Roman period, Canterbury became the main settlement of the Cantiani in the first century ce and shows evidence of Christianization from the beginning of the 4th century. The conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons dealt a severe blow to the development of the city. King Ethelbert made it the capital of the kingdom of Kent, while the Roman monk Augustine of Canterbury, a missionary dispatched by Pop…

[German Version] (1168, Mantua? – 1249, Budriolo, Romagna). A layperson who led a life of penitence as a hermit beginning in 1209 in the small village of Budriolo on the northern margins of the Apennines. He founded a hermit community named after him in 1217, at the earliest; it lived according to the Augustinian Rule (Augustine, rule of) and became an order active in pastoral care in northern Italy which was incorporated in 1256 into the order of the Augustinian Hermits. Ulrich Köpf Bibliography K. Elm, “Italienische Eremitengemeinschaften des 12. und 13. Jh.,” in idem, Vitasfratrum, 199…

[German Version] Genoa is the capital of the Liguria region and a major Italian port on the Gulf of Genoa, on the southern escarpment of the Ligurian Apennines (1998: 642,000 inhabitants). Settled since the 5th century bce by the Ligurians, then a Roman municipium, whose first Christian bishop is attested in 381 ce (it belonged to Milan until 1133, since then an archdiocese). Already a center of trade in the 6th century, the now wealthy Genoa came in the 11th century into competition with Pisa, emerging victorious, after a long struggle, in 1284.…

[German Version] (Nov 26, 1221, Toledo – Apr 4, 1284, Seville), king of Castile and Leon from 1252 to 1284. As the grandson of Philip of Swabia, he claimed the Hohenstaufen throne and embarked on an imperialistic policy embracing the entire Mediterranean region. His political ambitions came to nothing; he was more important as a lawgiver who sought to create a uniform code of law for Castile, historian (he wrote or directed the writing of a history of Spain, Estoria de España, and a universal history, Grande e general estoria), and promoter of astronomy, music, and poetry (427 Cantigas de S.…

[German Version] (c. 1300, northern Germany – Apr 10, 1378, Straßburg). Initially a Dominican, he was a Carthusian after c. 1340 (Straßburg, Coblenz [Prior], Mainz, Straßburg). His major work is the Vita Jesu Christi, a work based on the gospel harmony of Zacharias of Besançon (Chrysopolitanus, first half of the 12th cent.), early church authors and medieval, meditative and historicizing Jesus literature. It does not simply recount Jesus' life, but seeks, in individual sections (structured according to the scheme of lectio, meditatio and oratio and enriched by introductions an…

[German Version] (1248/1249, Foligno – Jan 4, 1309, Foligno). Influenced by the Franciscans at an early age, as a wife and mother Angela experienced a conversion to a life of asceticism and charity during a pilgrimage to Assisi in 1285. In 1291, after her immediate family had died, she joined the Franciscan Third Order. She lived with a female companion; a Franciscan who was related to her served as her confessor. At times a loose circle of disciples (including Ubertino of Casale) gathered about the magistra theologorum. Her confessor translated her ve…

[German Version] (Petrus; Manducator; early 12th cent., Troyes – 1178/1179, Paris). After studies in Troyes (where he became dean of the cathedral in 1147 and a canon of the abbey of St. Loup), Tours, and Paris, in 1159 he succeeded his teacher Peter Lombard at the cathedral school in Paris. In 1168 he became chancellor of Notre-Dame. During his last years, he lived in the Augustinian abbey of St. Victor. From his time as a teacher, many works have survived, mostly never published in print: glosses (Glossa ordinaria) on the Gospels, a commentary on the Psalms and (the first) on the Sentences of…

[German Version] (1026, Bavaria – Jul 5, 1091, Hirsau), who was of noble birth, was entrusted by his parents as an oblate (I) to the Benedictine abbey of St. Emmeram in Regensburg, where he was taught by Otloh of St. Emmeram. While still in Regensburg, he wrote two works on the quadrivium in dialogue form: De astronomia and De musica. In 1069 he was called to Hirsau as abbot (consecrated in 1071). He initially reformed the abbey after the model of St. Emmeram, which had adopted the reforms of Gorze Abbey; after 1076, however, Hirsau came under the influ…

[German Version] is a branch of theology that judges differences between various Christian Churches from a polemical and argumentative point of view rather than analyzing them from a historically critical perspective. The “controversy” involved relates both to the object and the method of this discipline. Theological positions are discussed when they become significant in disturbing or dividing the church community, and not so much as contributions to an open scholarly debate. I. Although the term controversial theology did not become common until the 20th century, …

[German Version] (Petrus; first half of the 12th cent., Hosdenc, near Beauvais – 1197, Cistercian abbey of Longpont, near Soissons). Sometime before 1173, after studying at the cathedral school in Reims, he began teaching at the cathedral school in Paris as a canon; in 1183 he was appointed to the post of cantor. He refused his election as bishop of Paris in 1196. In 1197 he was elected dean of the cathedral chapter of Reims, but died on his journey from Paris. Numerous works, some still unpublished, bear witness to his teaching activity: glosses on the Old and New Testaments; Distinctiones or S…

[German Version] were educational originally institutions for training clergy, administered by the episcopal curia. In the Early Church, learned bishops (preeminently Augustine) already gave instruction to their clergy. From the second Council of Toledo (527/531) onward, the Church repeatedly urged the establishment of episcopal schools; in 789, they were ¶ enjoined by Charlemagne, and in 1076 by Gregory VII. Nevertheless, down to the Reformation numerous councils deplored the educational level of the clergy – a sign of the great dispari…

[German Version] In classical Latin, the verb reformare and the associated noun reformatio already denoted a transformation for the better: restoration of an earlier human condition, since lost (morality e.g. Pliny the Younger Panegyricus 53.1: “corruptos depravatosque mores . . . reformare et corrigere”; bodily health e.g. Theodorus Priscianus Euproiston 1.38: “oculorum aciem reformare”), or physical objects (e.g. Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium 40.5: “templum reformare”) or improvement without regard to the past (e.g. Sen. Ep. 58.26: “reformatio morum”; Ep. 94.5…

[German Version] Recluses or hermits are men and women who do penance by shutting themselves (or having themselves shut) into a cell, either for a specific period (usually at the beginning of their lives as ascetics) or for the rest of their lives. This extreme form of asceticism surfaced in the Early Church in all regions of the East where there were monastic settlements (e.g. in Egypt, John of Lycopolis; esp. common in Syria) and came to the West in the 6th century, but it reached its climax in …

[German Version] The Vikings were marauding seafarers from Scandinavia, who plagued large sections of Europe from ¶ the 8th century to the 11th century. Swedes descended on Novgorod and Kiev via the Gulf of Finland, advancing as far as the Black Sea (Varangians). Norwegians conquered Scotland and the northern and eastern parts of Ireland, settled Iceland, and sailed as far as Greenland, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia. Danes settled between the mouths of the Oder and Vistula and landed on the southern and eastern …

[German Version] (after 841 – May 2, probably 908, Paris), a monk from the monastery of St. Germain in Auxerre, where he succeeded his teacher Heiric ( Heiricus). Remigius was involved in the renewal of the school of Reims around 893 and taught in Paris from 900 onward. He authored more than 20 works that were widely read in the Middle Ages, although most of them have never been printed: commentaries on ancient and early medieval grammarians and poets, on Genesis and the Psalms, and on Boethius’s De consolatione philosophiae and Opuscula sacra; he also wrote an exposition of the mass. Ulrich Kö…

[German Version] Authoritative dicta with significant content (Gk γνώμη/ gnṓmē [earliest: Sophoc. Ajax 1091] alongside more specialized terms; Lat. sententia [since Cicero]) were already in use in pre-Christian times in literary and rhetorical contexts; later they were collected for more convenient use ( gnomology, similar to anthology [Florilegium]). Examples are Μενάνδρου γνώμαι μονόστιχοι/ Menándrou gnṓmai monóstichoi ¶ (probably begun in the 2nd cent. bce; continued into the Byzantine period) and Σέξτου γνώμαι/ Séxtou gnṓmai (c. 200 ce). During the Trinitarian contr…

[German Version] A true (as opposed to “rhetorical”) question (Gk ζήτημα/ zḗtēma, πρόβλημα/ próblēma, ἀπορία/ aporía, Lat. quaestio), seeking an answer that will solve a problem, is a fundamental tool for rational argumentation. It was used already by the ancient Greeks (beginning with the questions of Socrates in the dialogues of Plato) and rabbinic Judaism (in give and take between teacher and student). Formulation of questions became common early on in the theology of the Early Church (reaching a high point in Augustine, e.g. De diversis quaestionibus ad Simplicianum; Quaestione…

[German Version] The city is first mentioned in 912. It was founded in the Anglo-Saxon period and walled by the Normans, and lies at the intersection of important routes. As early as the 12th century there were schools for the artes liberales , law and theology, from which the university developed by the beginning of the 13th century. Following a conflict with the townspeople, most masters and students left Oxford in 1209; some of them founded Cambridge University. When others returned to Oxford in 1214 the university…

[German Version] The Carmelite Order goes back to a community of occidental hermits on Mount Carmel, who were granted a rule by the patriarch of Jerusalem in 1210. It obligated them to a strict contemplative life. The spirituality of the community, led by a prior, was marked by anachoretic traditions, the example of the prophet Elijah, and veneration of the Virgin Mary. In 1240, the Carmelites fled before the growing threat of the Saracens into their European homelands, where …

[German Version] 1. Giovanni (Feb 24, 1463, Mirandola near Modena – Nov 17, 1494, Florence), son of the count of Mirandola. From 1477, he studied canon law, artes liberales, philosophy, and literature, especially in Bologna, Ferrara, Padua, Paris, and Perugia. In addition to Greek, he learned Hebrew and Arabic. He paid several visits to Florence, where he made friends with Lorenzo de’ Medici and his circle, especially with M. Ficino, Angelo Poliziano (1454–1494), and Girolamo Benivieni (1453–1542). …

[German Version] In the 12th century, a scholarly work briefly summarizing the totality of important knowledge in a particular field (Robert of Melun: singulorum brevis comprehensio) came to be called a Summa (later also Summula). Various disciplines were represented: Summa grammaticae/grammaticalis; Summa super Priscianum; Summa dictaminis/artis notariae; Summa logicae ( Summulae dialectices/logicales/logicae); Summa de modis significandi; Summa philosophiae; Summula philosophiae naturalis; Summa de anima, etc. Compendia of civil and canon law were also called Summae…

[German Version] (of Milan; died 1278/1281, Milan). The only source for her life is the record of the trial of Wilhelmina and her followers conducted posthumously in 1300 by the Inquisition; it indicates that ¶ she was from Bohemia and was of noble birth. We know nothing of her life before her arrival in Milan between 1260 and 1270, but she is said to have had a son. In that period, numerous religious dissidents were living in Milan, which was shaken not only by conflicts with other cities of northern Italy and internal partisan …

[German Version] A first, widely disseminated collection of the Reformer's Latin works was published in Basel in 1518 by Johannes Froben; a first edition of his German works was published in Basel in 1520 by Andreas Cratander. Luther's literary productivity persuaded Cratander and then Adam Petri to publish two more Latin editions – each expanded – in March and again in July of 1520. The first complete edition of Luther's works, the Wittenberg edition, was published between 1539 and 1559 in two series of folio volumes, 12 in German and seven in Latin; the ed…

[German Version] I. Terminology Today we limit the term Reformation (from Lat. reformatio) exclusively to the events set in motion by M. Luther, ¶ U. Zwingli, and other Reformers, which led in the course of the 16th century to a cleavage within Western Christendom that has lasted to this day. Until well into the 19th century, however, the term still had its original, broader sense of reform (Reform, Idea of), under which the event we call the Reformation was subsumed. It was the appearance of the French word réforme in the 17th century, borrowed into German in the course of the 19t…

[German Version] (Mar 11, 1485, Cles – Jul 30, 1539, Brixen). After studies in Verona and Bologna, he received the Dr. utriusque iuris in 1511; he became canon of the Cathedral in Trent in 1512, and bishop there in 1514/15. From 1514, as adviser to Maximilian I, he mediated between the emperor and the regime in Innsbruck and upper Italy. After collaborating in the election of Charles V in 1519, he became an adviser to Ferdinand I, in 1522 his chancellor and repre…

[German Version] (1090/1091, Fontaines-lès-Dijon – Aug 20, 1153, Clairvaux). I. Life – II. Work – III. Influence I. Life Bernard, son of the Burgundian nobleman Tescelin le Saur and of Aleth of Montbard, was educated by the secular canons of St. Vorles in Châtillon. In 1113, along with 30 young noblemen, he entered the abbey of Cîteaux, whose abbot was Stephan Harding. In 1115, he was commissioned to fou…

[German Version] the most important and widespread typological work of the late Middle Ages, combining texts and pictures. It borrowed the structure of the Biblia pauperum (Bible of the Poor), organized around salvation history, and expanded it thematically, in particular by including scenes from the life of Mary and the passion of Jesus; it also divided the text into tractates. The title and year of composition (1324) of the nova compilatio appear already in early 14th-century manuscripts. Whether it was compiled by German Dominicans (possibly associated with Lud…

[German Version] The Augustinian Canons Regular institution founded c. 1077 in the Danube valley, which was never of transregional significance, was secularized in 1802 along with its 17th/18th century monastery and church (dedicated 1738) and promised to the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1850, Prussian). Re-established as a Benedictine priory in 1863 under Prior Maurus Wolter, it was elevated in 1868 to an abbey and, during the exile of the monastery (1875–1887) forcibly elevated by the Kulturkampf , to archabbey. Linked from t…

[German Version] Mar 19, 1227 – Aug 21 or 22, 1241 (Hugo [Ugolino] Count of Segni; b. shortly before 1170, Anagni, Italy). After studying theology and law (Paris; Bologne?), he became cardinal deacon in 1198 and cardinal bishop of Ostia (dean of the college of cardinals) in 1206 under Innocent III. He was repeatedly the papal legate in Germany (1207 struggle for the throne) and central and upper Italy (1217–1219 preparing for the crusade ratified by the Fourth Lateran Council). In 1220, Gregory an…

[German Version] I. Early History – II. Character – III. Growth – IV. Development and Influence in the Middle Ages – V. The 15th Century and Afterwards I. Early History The first religious order in the history of Christian monasticism (III, 3) came into being when the Benedictine (Benedictines) abbey Novum Monasterium (from 1119: Cistercium, Fr. Cîteaux, hence the self-designation Cistercienses) in Burgundy established four daughter houses in the space of a few years (“primary abbeys”: La Ferté, 1113; Pontigny, 1114; Clairvaux and Mori…

[German Version] (after 990, near Ravenna – 1078, Fécamp). In 1017, John was sent from St. Bénigne in Dijon to be prior (from 1028 onward, abbot) in the La Trinité monastery in Fécamp and there became the most important proponent of Norman reform monasticism in the 11th century. His major works were Confessio theologica, Confessio fidei, Libellus de scripturis et verbis patrum collectus. Although John drew broadly on the tradition (esp. Augustine of Hippo and Gregory the Great) and did not yet make scholastic arguments, his markedly meditative theology had…

[German Version] (June 13, 1884, Paris – Sep 19, 1978, Auxerre), philosopher. In 1913, he became professor at Lille, in 1919 at Strasbourg, from 1921 to 1932 he was ¶ professor at the Sorbonne, and from 1932 at the Collège de France. In 1929, he co-founded the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies in Toronto, and in 1947 became a member of the Académie Française. Gilson was also a systematic philosopher (e.g. Matières et formes, 1964; ET: Forms and Substances in the Arts, 2001), although the focal point of his work lay in the history of what he called “Christian philosoph…

[German Version] (Guilelmus Parvus; c. 1136, Bridlington, Yorkshire – 1198, Newburgh, Yorkshire). While a canon in the Augustinian canonry at Newburgh (Canons Regular of St. Augustine), in addition to sermons William wrote a mariological exposition of the Song of Songs ( Explanatio sacri epithalamii in matrem sponsi, ed. J.C. Gorman, 1960) and a history of England ( Historia rerum anglicarum, ed. R.Howlett, 2 vols., 1884–1885), a sober, precise, and balanced account of the period from 1066 to 1198 (i.e. the reigns of Henry II and Richard I of England). Ulrich Köpf Bibliography R. Jahnc…

[German Version] Mendicants Dispute, term for the controversies at the University of Paris about the status of the mendicants (Mendicant orders), who from 1217 (Dominicans) and 1219 (Franciscans) lived in Paris as students, preachers, and pastors, and who since the university strike from 1229 to 1231 also held chairs in the theological faculty (1229 Roland of Cremona OP, 1231 John of St. Giles OP, 1236 Alexander of Hales OFM). The growing competition with the mendicants, who were favored by the po…

[German Version] (Hospitallers), a lay brotherhood founded at the end of the 11th century in connection with the church of La-Motte-aux-Bois (since the 14th cent.: St.-Antoine-en-Viennois), which possessed the relics of the desert father Antonius. They cared for those ill with St. Anthony's fire (holy fire, ergot). The Antonites spread rapidly and were transformed in …

[German Version] Pallium, a circular stole worn on the shoulders over the mass robe, made of white wool decorated with black silk crosses, with a short strip with a black end hanging over the chest and the back (Vestments, Liturgical). It presumably developed from the sash worn by Roman officials in late imperial times, and from the early 6th century the pope has been entitled to wear this liturgical vestment. From the 9th century he bestowed it on archbishops, who, however, were allowed to wear i…

[German Version] (c. 1214/1220, England – c. 1292). After studying arts in Oxford and perhaps in Paris (M.A. c. 1236/1240), Bacon taught in the Paris faculty of arts until about 1247. It is uncertain whether he then returned to England, and where he entered the Franciscan order (probably before 1256). After theological studies (in Oxford?) he was again in Paris around 1257. ¶ Here, c. 1263, he found a patron in Cardinal Gui Foucois (Guy Foulques the Fat), later Pope Clement IV (1265–1268), to whom he sent several works on request (including the Opus maius, the Opus minus, and perhaps the Opus t…

[German Version] (1095/1100, near Novara, Lombardy – Jul 21/22, 1160, Paris). After studying in northern Italy and Reims, Peter came to Paris c. 1135 as an outsider; by 1145 he was already one of the most important teachers in the cathedral school. On Jul 28, 1159, he was consecrated bishop of Paris, but he was unable to distinguish himself in that office. In his years of teaching, he produced glosses (Glossa ordinaria) on the Psalms (PL 191, 55–1296) and the Pauline Epistles, also called the magna (or maior) glossatura (PL 191, 1297–1696; 192, 9–520), as well as four books of Sententiae (crit…

[German Version] I. Middle Ages Waldenses (Valdesi), supporters of the townsman Waldo from Lyon, made their first historical appearance in 1179 at the Third Lateran Council, where they vainly requested permission to preach freely. In 1180, Waldo and his companions ( fratres) committed themselves to an orthodox creed at a synod in Lyon and pledged to lead a life according to the counsels of perfection. By doing so, the community of the “Poor of Lyon” attained public visibility. In analogy to other religious movements of the 12th century…

[German Version] (teachers of the church) is an honorific term first used by Bishop Licinianus of Cartagena toward the end of the 6th century (Gregory the Great, Ep. 1.41a). The canonization of theological authorities in Late Antiquity formed a circle of three liturgically venerated Doctores ecclesiae in the Eastern Church (Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom) and of four in the West (first around 800: Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, Gregory I the Great). Boniface VIII first officially established ¶ the names of the four Latin egregii Doctores ecclesi…

[German Version] is a form of Christian devotion centered on the passion and crucifixion of Jesus (Passion/Passion traditions). Commemoration of the end of Jesus’ life was always a living presence in the Christian community – despite the criticism of his manner of death by Jews and pagans (1 Cor 1:23), which in turn fostered the Christian interpretation of the cross (Cross/Crucifixion) as a trophy while also discouraging iconographic representation of the crucifixion until the early 5th century. E…

[German Version] ( conversi) are, in the narrower sense, members of a religious community who are not ordained. In the course of history, however, the name fratres laici or conversi has designated various groups of persons. In the early medieval period, conversi were monks who, in contrast to ( pueri) oblati (Oblates: I) who were consigned to a monastery already as children, entered the monastery only as adults. In addition to this so-called “older institution of conversi,” a “younger institution of conversi” arose in the 11th century. It included members of the monastic familia who wer…

[German Version] The suburbicarian dioceses are those in the region adjacent ( suburbium) to Rome. Most have had a checkered history: Albano, Frascati (replacing Tusculum, which replaced Labicum and was de facto an episcopal see from 1058 to 1197, recognized nominally until 1537), Ostia, Palestrina, Porto (united the Santa Rufina [Silva Candida] by Callistus II), Sabina (the result of incorporating the see of Nomentum into the see of Forum Novum; united ¶ with Poggio Mirteto in 1925), Velletri (united with Ostia in 1150, separated once more in 1914, and united with …

[German Version] (died 1115, Antwerp), itinerant ascetic preacher, probably a layman, for some time a member of the circle of Count Robert II of Flanders. In 1112 he is ¶ said to have been in Rome trying to have the islands at the mouth of the Scheldt (Zeeland) removed from the bishopric of Utrecht and placed under the bishopric of Thérouanne (under the archbishopric of Reims). On his return journey, he was imprisoned by the archbishop of Cologne and charged with heresy by the Utrecht cathedral clergy. The stereotyped accusa…

[German Version] village in Latium, in the valley of the Aniene east of Rome. Here Benedict of Nursia is said to have lived in a cave (Sacro Speco) as a hermit and to have later joined with companions to form a monastic settlement in rooms of a former villa of the emperor Nero (monastery of San Clemente). In the years that followed, he is said to have founded ten additional monasteries before going to Monte Cassino in 529. Two of them are still standing today: San Benedetto (Sacro Speco) and, low…

[German Version] I. The term observantia denoted in classical Latin the due veneration of other human beings, especially those who surpass us in age, wisdom, and worth (Cic. De inventione 2.66, 161). In Latin of the imperial period it also came to mean respect for customs and laws (on the relationship with religio, cf. 2 Macc 6:11, Vulgate). From the early Middle Ages, the term was especially applied to religious behavior understood as compliance with divine commands: on the one hand, with regard to keeping church rules in general, especially tho…

[German Version] was the most important translator north of the Alps in the 12th century; he was active for some time in Poitiers. Supported by John of Salisbury and the Abbey St. Denis in Paris, he translated the works and letters of Pseudo- Dionysius Areopagita from Greek into Latin, while avoiding grecisms. The preparation for this work was a commentary on the Hierarchia caelestis. His translations were widely used, especially in the 13th century. Ulrich Köpf Bibliography M. Grabmann, Mittelalterliches Geistesleben, vol. I, 1926, 454–460 W. Berschin, Griechisch-lateinisches Mit…

[German Version] I. Early Research At the dawn of the 21st century, a history of piety is more a desideratum than a reality, especially in Protestantism. In the 19th century, the notion of piety as defined in its modern sense by Pietism, J.W. v. Goethe, and Romanticism and grounded theologically by F.D.E. Schleiermacher did not lead to academic study of the history of piety. To this day, religious scholarship avoids the term; there is no lemma Frömmigkeit in HRWG II, 1990. Not until the end of the 19th century did church history deal with the history of piety, primarily …

[German Version] (c. 1045, Arbrissel near Rennes – Feb 25, 1116, Priory of Orsan-en-Berry), son of a hereditary priest of Arbrissel. After studies in Paris, Robert entered the service of Bishop Silvester of Rennes as a clerk. After further studies in Angers (from 1078) he experienced a conversion to ascetic life, and withdrew as a hermit to the Forest of Craon (Anjou), where he founded a collegiate establishment in 1095, leaving it in order to travel through the countryside preaching repentance (f…

[German Version] An anonymous treatise from the late 14th century, preserved in eight medieval manuscripts. Luther arranged the first printing in 1516, based on a fragment subsequently lost (WA 1, 152f.: “a noble little spiritual book”) and the second in 1518, based on a complete manuscript (likewise lost; WA 1, 375–379: “Eyn deutsch Theologia”). After the Augsburg reprint in 1518 (“Theologia Teütsch”), the title Theologia deutsch became established. The first modern printing appeared in 1843, based on a manuscript formerly in Bronnbach, whose prologue identi…

[German Version] Latin patrocinium denotes a proprietary relationship, usually established by consecration, and the consequent protective function of a patron (usually a saint) with respect to a church or altar, a country, a city or bishopric, a group (social class, noble family, profession, guild, confraternity, university, monastery, religious congregation, or the like), or an individual. In return for protection, the patron is honored by the faithful in a wide variety of liturgical and paraliturgical forms. ¶ The ancient Roman term patronus first appears as a term for a …

[German Version] From the late 14th century, reforming groups or tendencies within monasticism (III, 4.b), especially in the mendicant orders and most especially among the Franciscans, were called observants ( observantes, fratres de observantia etc.). In internal debates ¶ about the right way of life, they opposed easing of the rule and other kinds of adaptation that had crept in (Conventuals), and advocated strict following of the rules as rigorously interpreted, together with other prescriptions ( observantia regularis etc., Observance). In this, restoration of the vita commu…

[German Version] (Jun 21, 1792, Schmiden, near Stuttgart – Dec 1, 1860, Tübingen). I. Life – II. Work – III. Influence I. Life The eldest son of a Württemberg pastor, Baur studied theology at Tübingen (1809–1814) and served briefly as a curate and Repetent (tutor). In 1817, he became professor at the Minor Seminary in Blaubeuren, where he taught ancient languages, laying the groundwork for his general erudition. Here, in 1821, he married Emilie Becher (18…

[German Version] is an Umbrian city on the western foothills of Monte Subasio. It was a Roman municipium and the home of the poet Propertius. Since the early 4th century it has been the seat of a bishopric (city patron: the martyred bishop Rufinus). In the early Middle Ages it belonged to the Lombard Duchy of Spoleto, was under Hohenstaufen dominion from 1172/…

[German Version] (Discalceates). The term for religious people who, as an expression of penitence and in reference to Jesus' missionary instructions, wear no shoes or only sandals: in the Middle Ages, these were at first the Camaldolese and especially the Franciscans, who came to be known as Barefoot Friars in Germany; in the modern period, especially the Passionists. Going barefoot is also characteristic for reform movements in some of the older orders since the 16th century (Carmelites Augustinian Hermits, Trinitarians, Mercedarians). Ulrich Köpf Bibliography E. Pacho, “Scalz…

[German Version] I. History The notion of a history of theology is a product of the modern era, but the roots of a historical perspective can be traced back to the Early Church. One is the doxography of heresy (the earliest extant being Irenaeus’s Adversus haereses), which was a foundation for the history of dogma (Dogma, History of); another was literary history (Literature, History of: V, 2.a), beginning with Jerome’s De viris illustribus (392). But it was not until the age of Protestant orthodoxy (II, 2) that scholars began to reflect on writing a history of theo…

[German Version] (483 – 577 or 583) founded several Irish monasteries and was abbot of Clonfert (County Galway). He is known to us from the legendary account of a seven-year voyage of Brendan and his companions to a paradisal island in the Atlantic ( Navigatio S. Brendani), written between the 7th and 10th centuries. The work relates more closely to the lives of the desert fathers and Old Irish seafaring literature than to Irish hagiography. It draws on classical …

[German Version] I. University 1. The University of Tübingen was founded in 1477 by count Eberhard the Bearded, during what is known as the “second foundation wave” of German universities. It was the university of the southern part of Württemberg, at that time divided into two. It received the papal privilege in 1476, and imperial confirmation in 1484. For the material support of the professorial chairs, the count devoted eight of the ten regular canonries, and two-thirds of the income of the Sindel…