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Yoga: Rāja Yoga

(7,204 words)

Author(s): Schreiner, Peter
Key words nowadays associated with Rāja Yoga are inwardness, mind control, purity, peace, bliss, meditation, easiness, being ancient, and authenticity – all of them supposedly representative of “classical” Yoga (Pātañjala Yoga) as canonized in the Yogasūtra attributed to Patañjali. Thus, “Rāja Yoga” falls in the domain of “Yoga” no less than of “Haṭha Yoga” and “modern yoga”. Besides the literal meaning of the term ("Royal Yoga"), tradition knows the (linguistically wrong) etymological derivation from rajas ([menstrual] blood). By its claim to superiority, “Royal Yoga” implie…
Date: 2020-05-18

Religious Education, Science of

(4,242 words)

Author(s): Grethlein, Christian | Ziebertz, Hans-Georg | Schreiner, Peter
[German Version] I. Protestantism 1. Concept and subject area Religionspädagogik (RP), as the German technical term designating the science of ¶ religious education or pedagogics, is first attested in 1889 in the writings of Max Reischle (1858–1905), a disciple of A. Ritschl (Bockwoldt, 9f.). The first professorship for (Protestant) RP was instituted in 1924 in Göttingen (Roggenkamp-Kaufmann, 119f.). The term denotes “a ‘modern’ German science situated between theology and educational theory (Education, Theory of)” …

Chronicles

(1,689 words)

Author(s): Schreiner, Peter | Kaufhold, Hubert | Müller, Ludolf | Sprandel, Rolf
[German Version] I. Byzantine Chronicles – II. Eastern Christian Chronicles – III. Russian Chronicles – IV. Western Chronicles I. Byzantine Chronicles Recent scholarship rightly sees world histories and contemporary historical works as a literary unity. In conformity with the terminology used here, in this article “chronicles” encompasses only world histories and annals. The Byzantine world produced far fewer kinds of chronicles than did the West, the Slavic world, and the Christian East. There are virtually no chronicles and annals o…

Heraclius

(221 words)

Author(s): Schreiner, Peter
[German Version] ( Herakleios; 575 – Feb 11, 641), Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. Born in Carthage, where his father was exarch, Heraclius overthrew his predecessor Phokas and established a dynasty that ruled until 711. He secured the status quo in the Balkans by negotiating treaties with the Avars and turned his attention to the conflict with the Sasanids, who had unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople in 626 before suffering a crucial defeat near Niniveh in 627, an event that precipitated the…

Anthimus of Constantinople

(174 words)

Author(s): Schreiner, Peter
[German Version] was patriarch of Constantinople; the dates of his birth and death (the latter probably between 536 and 552) are unknown. As an adherent of Monophysitism, he was transferred at the instigation of Empress Theodora from the Metropolitan see in Trapezus to Constantinople (after Jun 5, 535). The historian Theophanes Homologetes and the Liber pontificalis report his activity, which his own clergy opposed. Pope Agapet, who stayed in Constantinople in 535/36, obtained his deposition because …

Bhagavadgītā

(274 words)

Author(s): Schreiner, Peter
[German Version] (lit. “Song of the Lord”) is one of the best-known, most discussed, and for many Hindus most authoritative texts of Hinduism; it comprises 18 chapters (700 verses) from book 6 of the Mahābhārata epic. Greatly simplified, the teachings contained in the Bhagavadgītā fall into three categories: 1. reflections on competing ideals of salvation and proper social order: ascetic renunciation, yogic contemplation, Sāṃkhya …

Agriculture

(7,403 words)

Author(s): Hruška, Blahoslav (Prague) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel) | Osborne, Robin (Oxford) | Schreiner, Peter (Cologne) | Et al.
I. Near East and Egypt [German version] A. Introduction In the Near Orient (particularly the southern Levant and Syria) and Egypt, a fundamental change in the history of mankind occurred 12,000 years ago: the transition from the hunter-gatherer life of paleolithic times to neolithic agrarian society. In the so-called ‘fertile crescent’ and in Egypt, agriculture almost always included livestock farming. Agriculture also encompassed the planting of fruit trees, viticulture and horticulture. The methods of food production led to increasing freedom from dependency on e…

Crafts, Trade

(7,461 words)

Author(s): van de Mieroop, Marc (New York) | Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Bieg, Gebhard (Tübingen) | Burford-Cooper, Alison (Ann Arbor) | Et al.
[German version] I. Ancient Orient and Egypt Crafts in Egypt, in Syria-Palestine and in Mesopotamia can be best categorized by the materials employed: stone, bone and other animal products, clay and glass, metals, wood, wool and flax and leather, as well as reed and plant fibres. These were used to make objects of the most varied kinds, from cooking-pots to finely worked pieces of jewellery. For the building trade, stone, clay, reed and wood were important. For the investigation of the various forms of…

Commerce

(8,308 words)

Author(s): Renger, Johannes (Berlin) | Briese, Christoph (Randers) | Bieg, Gebhard (Tübingen) | de Souza, Philip (Twickenham) | Drexhage, Hans-Joachim (Marburg) | Et al.
[German version] I. Ancient Orient (Egypt, South-West Asia, India) Archaeologically attested since the Neolithic and documented since the 3rd millennium BC, long-distance or overland commerce -- as opposed to exchange and allocation of goods on a local level according to daily needs -- was founded on the necessity for ensuring the supply of so-called strategic goods (metal, building timber) not available domestically, as well as on the demand for luxury and prestige goods, or the materials required for producing them. In historical times, the organization of commerce was a…

Handwerk

(6,532 words)

Author(s): van de Mieroop, Marc (New York) | Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Bieg, Gebhard (Tübingen) | Burford-Cooper, Alison (Ann Arbor) | Et al.
[English version] I. Alter Orient und Ägypten Das H. in Äg., in Syrien-Palästina und in Mesopot. läßt sich am besten anhand der verwendeten Materialien kategorisieren: Stein, Knochen und andere tierische Produkte, Ton und Glas, Metalle, Holz, Wolle und Flachs, Leder sowie Rohr und Pflanzenfasern. Daraus verfertigte man Gegenstände verschiedenster Art, vom Kochtopf bis zum fein gearbeiteten Schmuckstück. Für das Bau-H. waren Stein, Ton, Rohr und Holz wichtig. Für die Untersuchung verschiedener Formen de…

Handel

(7,587 words)

Author(s): Renger, Johannes (Berlin) | Briese, Christoph (Randers) | Bieg, Gebhard (Tübingen) | de Souza, Philip (Twickenham) | Drexhage, Hans-Joachim (Marburg) | Et al.
[English version] I. Alter Orient (Ägypten, Vorderasien, Indien) Fern- oder Überland-H. - im Gegensatz zu Austausch und Allokation von Gütern des tägl. Bedarfs auf lokaler Ebene -, im Alten Orient arch. seit dem Neolithikum, in Texten seit dem 3. Jt. v.Chr. belegt, beruhte auf der Notwendigkeit, die Versorgung mit sog. strategischen Gütern (Metallen, Bauholz) sicherzustellen, die im eigenen Territorium nicht vorhanden waren, sowie auf dem Bedürfnis nach Luxus- und Prestigegütern bzw. den dafür benötigten Materialien. In histor. Zeit lag die Organisation des H. in der …

Landwirtschaft

(6,774 words)

Author(s): Hruška, Blahoslav (Prag) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel) | Osborne, Robin (Oxford) | Schreiner, Peter (Köln) | Et al.
I. Vorderasien und Ägypten [English version] A. Einleitung Im Vorderen Orient (bes. südl. Levante und Syrien) und Äg. ereignete sich vor etwa 12000 Jahren eine tiefgreifende Wende in der Gesch. der Menschheit: der Übergang vom Jäger- und Sammlertum des Paläolithikum zur Ackerbaugesellschaft des Neolithikum. Ackerbau wurde im sog. “Fruchtbaren Halbmond” und in Äg. fast immer mit Viehhaltung verbunden. Die L. umfaßte auch Anpflanzung von Fruchtbäumen, Weinbau und Gartenkultur. Die Methoden der Nahrungserzeugung führten zu steigender Unabhängigkeit gegenüber den Zu…

Religionspädagogik

(3,539 words)

Author(s): Grethlein, Christian | Ziebertz, Hans-Georg | Schreiner, Peter
[English Version] I. Evangelisch 1.Begriff und Gegenstandsbereich. Religionspädagogik (RP), als Fachterminus erstmals 1889 bei Max Reischle (1858–1905), Schüler A. Ritschls, nachweisbar (Bockwoldt 9f.), erste Professur für (ev.) RP 1924 in Göttingen (Roggenkamp-Kaufmann 119f.), bez. »eine ›moderne‹ dt. Wiss. zw. Theol. und Pädagogik« (Grethlein, 1998, 1f.), wobei mittlerweile die Religionswissenschaft als dritte Bezugswiss. hinzutritt, inhaltlich die Theorie rel., christl. und kirchl. Bildung, Sozial…