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geb. 3.1.106 v.Chr. in Arpinum; ermordet bei Formiae 7.12.43 v.Chr.; bedeutender röm. Redner, Politiker und Schriftsteller. Werke Das umfangreiche Werk umfasst Briefe ( Epistulae), Reden ( Orationes; von ca. 100 bezeugten Reden sind 58 überliefert; einige nur fragmentarisch), philosophische und rhetorische Schriften ( Philosophica und Rhetorica); außerdem sind Reste von Dichtung ( Poetica) erhalten. Handschriften Epistulae: Die handschriftliche Überlieferung der Briefe Ciceros ist recht schmal; sie umfasst im Wesentlichen drei Corpora. In zwei Corpora ist die heute Epist…

A. Author and work Relatively little in the biography of Publius Vergilius Maro (‘Virgil’, ‘Vergil’) is truly reliable. The following is more or less known. V. was born at Andes, near Mantua, on 15 October 70 BC. He died on 21 September 19 BC at Brundisium. His family was not of high social status. When he died, V.’s estate was of the scale befitting the Roman equestrian class. He was buried at Naples. While the names Vergilius and Maro indicate Etruscan origins, V. may have had relatives among the Oscan-speaking populace, via his mother Magia (or Maia). V. wrote his Eclogues ( Bucolica; see bel…

b. 3 January 106 BC in Arpinum; murdered near Formiae on 7 December 43 BC; distinguished Roman orator, politician and writer. Works The large œuvre comprises letters ( epistulae), orations ( orationes; of ca. 100 attested speeches 58 are still extant; some only in fragments), as well as philosophical and rhetorical writings ( philosophica and rhetorica); remnants of poetry ( poetica) are also preserved. Manuscripts Epistulae: Relatively few manuscripts transmit Cicero’s letters; the tradition consists mainly of three corpora. Two corpora transmit the correspo…

(Πολυδώρα/ Polydṓra). [German version] [1] Oceanid One of the Oceanids (Hes. Theog. 354). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [2] Daughter of Danaus Daughter of Danaus, by the river god Spercheius (Nicander fr. 41 Schneider) or by Peneius (Pherecydes FGrH 3 F 8); mother of Dryops. Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [3] Half-sister of Achilles Daughter of Peleus and Antigone [2], (half-)sister of Achilles [1] (Pherecydes FGrH 3 F 61; Apollod. 3,163. The river god Spercheius fathered Menesthius [2] on her, but the latter is nonetheless regar…

I. History [German version] A. Term Hellenization is understood here to be a complex acculturation phenomenon composed of different processes operating on several levels. In addition to the area of language and literature, Greek ideas and forms of expression were also adopted in architecture, fine arts, as well as in religion and cult; non-Greek patterns of sociopolitical organization were also adapted to fit the Greek model (polis state, forms of organizations and associations,  gymnasium). All of th…

[German version] (Πετεώς; Peteṓs). Mythical king of Athens (Hom. Il. 4,338), son of Orneus (Paus. 2,25,6) and father of Menestheus [1] (Hom. Il. 2,552). Banished by  Aegeus from Athens, P. and inhabitants of the deme of Stiria are supposed to have founded the polis of Stiris in Phocis (Paus. 10,35,8). In the Egyptian tradition an Egyptian Petes is supposed to have been Menestheus's father and a ruler of Athens (Diod. 1,28,6). Binder, Gerhard (Bochum)

(Φιλόμηλος; Philómēlos). [German version] [1] Son of Iasion and Demeter Son of Iasion and Demeter, brother of the wealthy Pluto (different Hes. Theog. 969f.) and father of Pareas, the founder of Parium (but Parios, son of Iasion, is more frequently named as the founder). P. lived in extreme poverty and was regarded as the inventor of the wagon, which he harnessed to two oxen. In recognition of his ingenuity his mother placed him amongst the stars as Bootes (Petellides of Knossos in Hyg. Poet. Astr. 2,4, s. FHG 4, p. 472). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [2] Leader of the Phocian League S…

(Ἰατροκλῆς; Iatroklês). [German version] [1] Athenian, oligarch, 4th cent. BC Athenian, fled in 411 BC after the pro-democratic uprising of the Athenian fleet off Samos with the trierarch  Eratosthenes [1] and others, when the fleet was operating in the Hellespont, to Athens, where he supported the oligarchy (Lys. 12,42). Schmitz, Winfried (Bielefeld) Bibliography Traill, PAA 531050. [German version] [2] Son of Pasiphon, approx. 350 BC Son of Pasiphon, in 348 BC captured by  Philippus II during the conquest of  Olynthus but then released (Aeschin. Leg. 15-16…

[German version] Like the Greek ἄβαξ, ἀβάκιον ( ábax, abákion), Latin abacus refers to various objects, made from a variety of materials, and which have the characteristics of a ‘platter, board, panel, or slab’: 1. the board used for board games and dice games ( Board games); 2. the platter used for serving food ( Table utensils); 3. a decorative wall panel ( Decorum, wall cladding); 4. the slab covering the capital of a column ( Column). 5. Often, abacus signifies a dresser or sideboard, most usually for the decorative display of valuable items. Thus Cicero says about Verres: abaci …

(Θόων; Thóōn). Name, appearing several times in Greek epics and myths: [German version] [1] Trojan, son of Phaenops Trojan, son of Phaenops [2] and brother of Phorcys [2] and Xanthus, killed by Diomedes [1] (Hom. Il. 5,152). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [2] Trojan killed by Odysseus Trojan, killed by Odysseus (Hom. Il. 11,422). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [3] Trojan killed by Antilochus Trojan, killed by Antilochus (Hom. Il. 12,140; 13,545). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [4] Phaeacian One of the Phaeaces (Hom. Od. 8,113). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) …

(Στάφυλος/ Stáphylos from σταφυλή/ staphylḗ, 'grape'; Σταφυλίτης/ Staphylítēs and Εὐστάφυλος/ Eustáphylos are epithets of Dionysus). [German version] [1] Son of Dionysus and Ariadne Son of Dionysus and Ariadne (Apollod. 1,9), brother of Oenopion, Thoas and Peparethus, husband of Chrysothemis [1], father of Rhoeo, Molpadia [1] and Parthenus (Diod. 5,62,1), considered the inventor of viticulture (EM 742,48). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [2] Son of the Silen Son of the Silen; inventor of the custom of mixing wine and water (Sall. fr. inc. 87 Dietsch; Plin HN 7,199). Binder…

(Πυλάδης/ Pyládēs, Doric form Πυλάδας/ Pyládas, Pind. Pyth. 11,23). [German version] [1] Friend of Orestes Phocian hero, son of Strophius and Anaxabia (e.g. Eur. Or. 764 f.; other mothers: schol. Eur. Or. 33, Hyg. Fab. 117). P. and Electra [4] (Eur. Or. 1092; 1207 ff.; Eur. IT 716 among others) were the parents of Strophius and Medon [4] (Paus. 2,16,7; Hyg. Fab. 119 f.) or Medeon (Steph. Byz. s. v. Μεδεών). P. grew up together with Orestes [1] and partakes in the latter's revenge on his mother and Aegisthus. F…

(Τεισαμενός/ Teisamenós, Lat. Tisamenus). [German version] [1] Son of Thersander Son of Thersander, the king of Thebes and of Demonassa [1] (Paus. 9,5,15) and therefore a grandson of Polyneices (Hdt. 6,52). After the death of his father in Mysia, Peneleus at first led the Theban contingent to Troy in place of T. who was still too young (Hom. Il. 2,494). T. became king of Thebes only after Peneleus died. Under his rule, the curse on his lineage was supposedly dormant. His son Theras is said to have settled the island of Thera (Hdt. 4,147; Paus. 3,15,6 f.). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) …

[German version] I. General points The term UL today conveys two meanings: (1) an artificially created language, intended to serve as a lingua franca for the entire world; efforts of this kind were made especially in the 19th cent. (e.g. Esperanto and Volapük); yet, as might be expected, they fell behind their self-imposed goal. (2) A language actually in world-wide use today is, above all, English. In the wake of the colonial period, it has established itself on all continents at least as a subsidiary means of commun…

(Ἴφικλος; Íphiklos). [German version] [1] Son of Phylacus Son of  Phylacus [1] (or of Cephalus: Paus. 10,29,6) and  Clymene [4], husband of Astyoche (or Diomede), father of  Podarces and  Protesilaus (Hom. Il. 2,704 f.; 13,698; Hom. Od. 11,289-297; 15,225-239). His father promised  Melampus [1] a large herd of cattle if he freed I. from his infertility, for which the sacrilege of the father was to blame (Paus. 4,36,3; Apollod. 1,98-102). The speed of I. was proverbial (Hom. Il. 23,636; Paus. 5,17,10). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [2] Son of Thestius Son of  Thestius from …

[German version] I. Ancient Cypriot The sources for C. are inscriptions in  Cypriot script (most important finding places: Idalium, Golgi, Paphus, Marion; oldest Text: o-pe-le-ta-u / opheltau/11th/10th cents. BC),  glossography (esp. Hsch., schol. on the Iliad and the Odyssey, fr. of an anonymous grammarians: Anecd. Bekk. 3,1094) and Cypriot proper names. C. a) corresponds particularly with  Arcadian and in parts also with  Mycenaean, and b) has its own specific features. For a): arsis of e, o before a nasal sound (/ in/= ἐν, / on-/ un-/ = ἀνά) and of o (gen. sg. in / -au/< -āo, 3rd sg. -tu …

[German version] I. Pre-classical period to the Koine Beginning in the pre-classical period, Ionic is attested in three main regions, from where it spread in the course of the second  colonization to the end of the Pontus and to Hispania: (1) West Ionic: Euboea (and Oropus) with colonies in Chalcidice (Olynthus), Lower Italy (Cyme, Pithekussa), and Sicily, (2) Ionic of the Cyclades: i.a. Ceos, Delos, Paros (and Thasos), Naxos (and Amorgos), (3) East Ionic: (Ionia and the offshore islands of Chios and Sa…

(Θεσσαλός/ Thessalós). [German version] [1] Eponym of the Greek territory of Thessaly Eponym of the Greek territory of Thessaly (Thessalians, Thessalia; Plin. HN 4,28), son of Haemon [1] (Rhianus FGrH 265 F 30), of the Heraclid Aeatus (Charax FGrH 103 F 6) or of Iason [1] and Medea (Diod. Sic. 4,54 f.). Binder, Carsten (Kiel) [German version] [2] Of Athens, son of Peisistratus [4] Athenian, son of Peisistratus [4]. Not named in Herodotus, T. first appears in Thucydides (1,20,2; 6,55,1) as a childless full brother of Hippias [1] and Hipparchus [1] from t…

I. Mesopotamia [German version] A. Scribes and schools In the course of the long history of Mesopotamian cuneiform culture from about 3200 BC to the end of the 1st millennium BC, scribes and schools undoubtedly underwent more changes than the continuity of terminology seems to indicate. At the beginning of the 3rd millennium, when cuneiform writing had already been used for more than two centuries, the art of writing itself had not yet become a profession in its own rights. This is evident from texts da…

[German version] (Ῥωμαῖοι). Rhōmaîos is the original Greek name for 'Romans', found in this sense especially in Greek historiographers (e. g. Polybius [2] or Dionysius [18] of Halicarnassus). As the imperial capital moved to Byzantium (Constantinople), however, Rhōmaîos came to be increasingly used for the Greek-speaking Byzantines; an initially still existing differentiation between οἱ ἐῷοι Ῥωμαῖοι/ hoi eṓioi Rhōmaîoi ('the eastern R.') and οἱ ἑσπέριοι Ῥωμαῖοι/ hoi hespérioi Rhōmaîoi ('the western R.' ) finally became obsolete with the decline of the western empire …