Search

1. AllgemeinDer arab. Herrschaftstitel sulṭān (ursprgl. »Macht, Autorität«) kam im Abbasiden-Kalifat seit dem 10. Jh. für die Militärherrscher in Gebrauch, die zunehmend die effektive Macht ausübten und dabei vom Kalifen als relig.-rechtlichem Oberhaupt des islam. Reiches formell bestätigt wurden [5. 849–851]; [6]. Unter den Seldschuken (1038–1194) und Ghaznawiden (977–1186) setzte sich dieser Titel um die Mitte des 11. Jh.s in offizieller Titulatur und in Münzprägungen durch. Als Titel für das souveräne Staatsoberhaupt erfuhr er einen glanzvollen Prestige-Z…

1. Christianity 1.1. General remarksIn the history of Christianity, the term  religious reform movements comprises those religious movements (Social movements, religious) that aspire to bring about a purifying change in conditions or an improved restructuring in the church or some of its aspects (e.g. devotion, liturgy, monasticism [Order (association)]). These can be contrasted with anti-reformatory or “reactionary” movements that seek to prevent changes or to reverse innovations. Although etymologically reform (from Latin  reformare, “reshape,” “restore”) also …

1. Introduction By the dawn of the early modern period, Islam was the religion of the overwhelming majority of the populations of its historic heartlands in the Near and Middle East and North Africa. It was also growing in South and Southeast Asia as far as China, and in sub-Saharan Africa. It was also represented in Europe in Spain, the Balkans, and the Tatar Khanates. Prior to the end of Islamic rule in Spain (1492) and the beginning of European expansion and the Christian mission in the America…

1. IntroductionThe Arabic royal title  sulṭān (originally “power, authority”) came into use from the 10th century onwards in the Abbasid Caliphate for military rulers, who were increasingly exercising effective power, formally endorsed by the Caliph acting as the supreme religious and legal head of the Islamic realm [5. 849–851]; [6]. The title became officially established, and began appearing on coins around the middle of the 11th century under the Seljuks (1038–1194) and Ghaznavids (977–1186).As the title given to the sovereign head of state, the term “sultan”…

1. Terminology and preceptsSlaves are people who are subject to the power of other people or institutions. Slavery is an institution of dominance that makes available the labor, services, and bodies of slaves for slave keepers and owners. The slave trade consists of the transportation of and trade in slaves (human trafficking) and the accrual of capital through the exchange, purchase, and sale of people (Slave abduction; Slave market). “Slaving” comprised the hunting, abduction, transportation, cap…

1. Christian Europe 1.1. ConceptTwo types of religious war can be identified in the history of early modern Christian Europe: one, a war among the various Christian confessions, and the other between (parts of) western Christendom and the non-Christian, particularly Islamic world (Turkish Wars). The German Religionskrieg is used alongside frequent synonyms, such as  Konfessionskrieg (confessional war), Glaubenskrieg (war of faith), and  konfessioneller Bürgerkrieg (confessional civil war), which to some extent serve to establish a reference to the cult…

1. History and functionsThe mosque (Arabic  masjid, “place of prostration for prayer”) [4] as a building for mandatory community prayers, especially Friday prayers, was already developing into the central religious and cultural institution of Islamic communities in the earliest phase of Islam, used for an abundance of communal and political functions (e.g. political addresses, announcements, and consultations, administration of justice, accommodation of guests). Along with the large, central Friday mosques (Arabic  jami`), the growth of Muslim cities spawned a p…

1. Europe 1.1. Etymology and purposeLatin  peregrinatio (journey, pilgrimage) is derived from  per agrum (across the field, i.e. over land). The etymology suggests primarily an arduous path to a goal. The goal could be defined variously: the most important motives were probably thanksgiving, penance, petition, quest for religious companionship, and expectation of other religious benefits. This marked a change from the conception, still dominant in antiquity and late antiquity, that saw life itself as a pilg…

1. Dynasty, empire, stateBeginning in the 14th century, the Turkmen emirate of the “House of Osman” (Ottoman Turkish  Āl-i ʿOs̠mān) developed from a small Seljuk successor princedom into an expanding realm that brought various countries and regions of Asia Minor and southeastern Europe under its sway from northwestern Anatolia. With its conquest of Constantinople in 1453, this sultanate fell heir to the Byzantine imperial legacy of the northeastern Mediterranean, and became an enduring factor in the politics of th…

1. EuropeOccultism took institutional shape in Europe in 1875, with the foundation of the Theosophical Society by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott (Theosophy). At the same time, it developed as a theoretical system opposed to contemporary materialism and directed against the established churches, and closely associated with 19th-century esoterica. The essence of this theory was the assumption of immaterial, supra-sensory forces arising from a “fluid,” “astral light,” or “animal so…

1. ÜberblickIm Kontext der Weltgeschichte der Neuzeit und deren globaler Interaktionen ist auffallend, dass etwa ab dem 15. Jh. die Überlegenheit nomadischer (= nom.) und Vieh züchtender gegenüber bäuerlichen Gesellschaften nachließ. Die Stärke der N. hatte sich in Asien und Afrika aufgrund der militärischen Überlegenheit ihrer berittenen Heere entwickelt – meist in Kombination mit der Rekrutierung auch bäuerlich sesshafter Menschen [28], mit der Eroberung von Städten, der Übernahme von Verwaltungsstrukturen und der Sicherung großer überregionaler Hande…

1. BegriffWährend des europ. MA war der S.-Begriff der antiken Rhetorik präsent geblieben. Das Wort S. leitet sich von lat. stilus (»Schreibweise«, ursprgl. »Schreibgriffel«) her. Ab dem 15. Jh. trat im Zuge der Antikerezeption von Humanismus und Renaissance auch der S. im Sinne der Gesamtheit formaler Eigenschaften verstärkt ins Interesse von Kunst, Literatur und Musik. Mit dem Terminus S. werden formale Qualitäten beschrieben sowie individuelle, regionale und zeitliche Besonderheiten, Gemeinsamkeiten, Un…

1. Christentum 1.1. VorbemerkungZur Eigenart des Christentums gehört, dass es von Anbeginn eine Theologie ausbildete und sich zur Auslegung des eigenen Glaubens der begrifflichen Mittel der zeitgenössischen, d. h. zunächst der griech. und röm. Philosophie bediente. In der G.-Lehre fand diese Verschränkung von theologischem und philosophischem Denken stets ihren exemplarischen Niederschlag. Dabei durchzog eine Reihe von Grundspannungen die ideengeschichtliche Entwicklung auch noch der Nz. Hierzu zählten (1) die Frage…

1. Allgemein 1.1. Gegenstand und FunktionUnter einer Sch. (von lat. schola, aus dem griech. scholḗ, »Freisein von Geschäften«; vgl. Muße) versteht man heute eine öffentliche oder private Einrichtung mit der Aufgabe, v. a. Kindern und Jugendlichen, aber auch Erwachsenen durch planmäßigen Unterricht Wissen, Erkenntnis, Einsicht und die Fähigkeit zu begründetem Urteil zu vermitteln. Die Funktionen der Sch. liegen somit im Erwerb von Qualifikationen, in der Anpassung an soziokulturelle Systeme (Sozialisation), der Auslese über Prüfungen (…

1. Geschichte und Kultur 1.1. ÜberblickT. bedeutet »Überlieferung«. Idealtypisch versteht man darunter einen je spezifischen Fundus von Wissensbeständen und Techniken, Sitten und Bräuchen, Einstellungen und Haltungen, Normen und Institutionen, der innerhalb einer Gemeinschaft relativ unverändert von einer Generation an die folgende weitergegeben wird und deren Kultur dadurch Kontinuität und Identität verleiht. »Als Träger von T. im engeren und weiteren Sinne gelten bevorzugt die kleinen sozialen Einheiten (Eltern, Familie, Clan) oder Beruf…

1. History and culture 1.1. IntroductionTradition (Latin traditio, via Old French  tradicion, “handing over,” “delivery”) denotes customs, beliefs, and the like, that are “handed down” from generation to generation. In theory, it is understood as a specific reservoir of knowledge, techniques, technologies, mores, customs, perspectives, attitudes, norms, and institutions residing within a community and passed down relatively unchanged by one generation to the next, thereby lending continuity and identity to…

1. General survey 1. Definition and functionToday the word school (from Latin  schola, from Greek  scholḗ, “freedom from tasks”; see Leisure) denotes a public or private institution charged with using systematic instruction to convey knowledge, insight, and the ability to reach reasoned conclusions – primarily to children and adolescents, but also to adults. The functions of a school thus involve the acquisition of qualifications, adaptation to socio-cultural systems (socialization), screening by means of tes…

1. IntroductionIt is striking in the context of the world history of the early modern period and the global interaction that characterized it that the dominance of nomadic and cattle-farming societies over sedentary peasant societies waned from around the 15th century. Nomads had become strong in Asia and Africa thanks to the military superiority of their mounted armies, generally in combination with the recruitment of sedentary peasants [28], the conquest of cities, the seizure of administrative structures, and the securing of major transregional tradin…

1. Christianity 1.1. Preliminary noteOne of the unique aspects of Christianity is that from the very outset it developed a theology, and in order to explicate its own faith made use of the conceptual tools of contemporary (i.e. Greek and Roman) philosophy. This interweaving of theological and philosophical thought was constantly reflected quintessentially in the doctrine of God. A series of fundamental tensions pervaded the development of the idea of God even in the early modern period. These includ…

1. ConceptThe concept of style as developed in ancient rhetoric remained present throughout the European Middle Ages. The word derives from the Latin stilus (way of writing; originally “stylus” for writing). Beginning in the 15th century, the reception of classical antiquity in Renaissance Humanism also made style, in the sense of a totality of formal qualities, a subject of increasing interest in art, literature, and music (Antiquity, reception of). The term describes formal qualities as well as characterizing indiv…