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Numerals

(449 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] The basis of the system of numerals ( numeralia) in Indo-European languages is formed by the cardinalia (‘cardinal numbers’, e.g. Latin septem), to which correspond the derived forms of the ordinalia (‘ordinal numbers’, e.g. septimus) and multiplicatives (‘numeral adverbs’, e.g. septiēs). As elementary components of basic vocabulary, the lower cardinals are particularly resistant to replacement by borrowing or neologism and are therefore suited for proof of linguistic affinity. The first four Indo-European cardinal numb…

Anomaly

(184 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] Umbrella term for irregularities within a linguistic system. Anomalies within morphology (declension system) often arise through sound shifts; they tend to be removed by  analogy [2]. Thus the Greek-Homeric form Ζῆν, for instance, which as the acc. sing. of Ζεύς  diēus, which goes back to the proto-Indo-Germanic basic language through the effect of the so-called ‘Stang's’ law, could be ‘regularized’ in various ways to produce the form diēm: through ‘paradigmatic equilibrium’ according to the gen./dat. sing., Διός/Διί, the form Διά arose, throug…

Language contact

(566 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] Language contact (LC) occurs when two or more languages, usually geographical neighbours, collide through the mixing of the respective speaker communities, making communication across the language boundaries necessary or possible. A typical phenomenon of intensive LC is bilingualism, in which individual speakers have sufficient mastery of two (or more) languages and use them alternately ( Multilingualism), not to be confused with diglossia which refers to the change between diff…

Language change

(756 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] I. General A universal tendency of human language is perpetual change on all levels caused by external factors (e.g. Language contact) as well as internal ones (e.g. anomalies). Language change (LC) over a long period of time in any given language will first lead to dialectal diversification ( Language strata), then, esp. in cases of geographical separation, may result in a division into related yet independent languages. It is therefore reasonable to assume that not only language forms such as Ionic-At…

Syncretism

(1,979 words)

Author(s): Gordon, Richard L. (Ilmmünster) | Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
I. In the context of religious studies [German version] A. General remarks In a religious context, syncretism can be defined as the process of either a peaceable or a contentious mutual permeation of elements taken from two or more traditions [1]. Here 'tradition' is inevitably an ambiguous concept; in considering Antiquity, scholars traditionally distinguish between 'internal syncretism' and 'contact-based syncretism'. 'Internal syncretism' refers to the transfer of manifestations, names and epithets from one deity to another within a single polytheistic system (Polytheism). The epicleses of a number of Greek and Roman gods resulted from this process of assimilating local cults, e.g. Zeus Meilichios/Lykaios, Artemis Laphria, the 'Black' Demeter of Phigaleia (Paus. 8,42), Mater Matuta and Diana Tifatina.…

Popular etymology

(357 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] (also called 'folk etymology'), from the German 'Volksetymologie', a term coined in the mid-19th cent. (probably first in [1]) to refer to the conscious or unconscious interpretation of words and their subsequent modification by native speakers as a result of that interpretation (making them more similar to words presumed to be related). Many examples of words modified through PE are found in the vocabulary of the classical languages. It is generally believed that the vowels contained in the Greek κλόνις/ klónis ('tailbone'), which deviate from the Old Indo-…

Linguistic affinity

(492 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] The realization that various languages are genealogically related originated in antiquity. The works of Greek grammarians already show that Latin was not only known to them as a language different from their own but that they also reflected upon the mutual relationship of the two. In fact, the conclusion of Philoxenus [8] - that Latin was descended ‘from the Aeolic dialect of Greek because neither possessed a dual’ (Philoxenus in Hdn., GG 3,2, p. 791, l. 28-30) - was somewhat ak…

Loan-word

(852 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] A linguistic term for words whi…

Inflection

(1,075 words)

Analogy

(895 words)

Author(s): Crubellier, Michel (Villeneuve d'Ascq) | Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] [1] Philosophical Ἀναλογία, ἀνὰ λόγον ( Analogía, anà lógon) designate originally the mathematical proportion, i.e., the correspondence of numerical or volume relationships (definition: Euc. 5, Def. 5 and 6; 7, Def. 20; Aristot. Eth. Nic. 5,6; 1131 a 6-b9 Poet. 21,11-14; 1457 b 16-30). The teachings about proportions were used in the first instance as a tool to solve problems; it soon developed, however, into a general theoretical construction, which Euclid presented in the fifth book…

Language strata

(763 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main) | Binder, Vera (Gießen)
[German version] I. Overview From a synchronic point of view, ‘language strata’ (LS) represents a cover term for the different forms that a given language takes in its use by individual speakers (idiolect), by speaker groups defined by their social position (sociolect) or by geographically determined speaker communities ( Dialect); from a diachronic point of view, LS refers to the various historical str…

Syntax

(682 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
σύνταξις/ sýntaxis in Apollonius [11], Latin constructio in Priscian; it deals with the sentence as the basic form of meaningful utterances, and with its structure and constituents.…

Language

(1,091 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] …

Thematic vowel

(198 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] Vocalic element used (alone or in combination with preceding sounds) to form word stems (Greek θέμα/ théma). In Indo-European languages, TVs typically appear as e and o; they are characteristic of both nominal stems (e.g. the accusative singular Latin agrum, Greek ἀγρόν/ agrón, Sanskrit ájram, from the underlying stem * h2aǵ-r=o- ‘field’, known as the o-declension) and verbal stems (e.g. the present stem * h2aǵ-e/o- underlying Latin agite/agunt, Greek ἄγετε/ἄγουσι(ν) ( ágete/ ágousi(n)), Sanskrit ajata/ajanti ‘drive (imperative plural)’/‘they drive’). Originally, the Indo-European TV prob…

Dual

(226 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[German version] Numerical category, which in contrast to the sg. (singular) and pl. (plural) denotes a (conjugate or accidental) duality. While the dual was used extensively in the Indo-European parent langua…

Anomalie

(171 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost (Frankfurt/Main)
[English version] Überbegriff für Unregelmäßigkeiten innerhalb eines sprachlichen Systems. A.en innerhalb der Morphologie (Flexionssystem) entstehen oft durch Lautwandel; sie tendieren dazu, durch Analogie [2] beseitigt zu werden. So konnte z. B. die gr.-homer. Form Ζῆν, die als Akk. Sg. von Ζεύς  di̯ēu̯s auf die in der uridg. Grundsprache durch Wirkung des sog. “Stangsch…

Volksetymologie

(303 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost
[English version] In der Mitte des 19. Jh. geprägter Begriff (zuerst wohl bei [1]), mit dem die bewußte oder unbewußte Deutung von Wörtern und ihre darauf beruhende Umgestaltung (im Sinne einer Angleichung an vermeintlich Bildungsverwandtes) durch Muttersprachler gemeint ist. Volksetymologische Umgestalt…

Sprachschichten

(646 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost | Binder, Vera
[English version] I. Allgemein Im Sinne einer synchronen Betrachtungsweise bildet “S.” den Überbegriff über die verschiedenen Ausprägungen, die eine gegebene Sprache (= Spr.) in ihrer Verwendung bei einzelnen Sprechern (Idiolekt), bei durch ihre soziale Stellung definierten Sprechergruppen (Soziolekt) oder bei geogr. bestimmbaren Sprechergemeinschaften (Dialekt) annimmt; im Sinne einer diachronen Betrachtungsweise ist S. Bezeichnung der unterschiedlichen histor. Strata, die sich in…

Sprachkontakt

(485 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost
[English version] Das Aufeinandertreffen zweier oder mehrerer Sprachen (= Spr.), meist in geogr. Nachbarschaft und unter Vermischung der jeweiligen Sprechergemeins…

Themavokal

(186 words)

Author(s): Gippert, Jost
[English version] Vok. Element, das (allein oder im Verbund mit vorangehenden Lauten) zur Bildung von Wortstämmen (griech. θέμα/ théma) dient. Für indogermanische Sprachen charakteristisch ist ein als e und o auftretender Th.; er kennzeichnet sowohl nominale (z. B. in dem dem Akk. Sg. lat. agrum, griech. ἀγρόν, altind. ájram zugrundeliegenden Stamm * h2aǵ-r=o- “Acker”, sog. “o”-Deklination) als auch verbale Stämme (z. B. den in lat. agite/agunt, griech. ἄγετε /ἄγουσι(ν), altind. ajata /ajanti “treibt / sie treiben” vorliegenden Präs.-Stamm * h2aǵ-e/o-). Ursprünglich dürfte der idg. Th. derivative Funktion gehabt haben, die aber in den Einzelsprachen meist verblaßt ist; eine klare Funktionalität zeigt der Th. noch als Bildungssuffix des Konj. im Griech. und Indo-Iranischen (z. B. in homer. ἴομεν “wir wollen gehen”; im Lat. finden sich Reste in Futurbildungen wie z. B. 3. Sg. erit
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