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1. Antiquity and Christianity The term “philosophy of history,” which goes back to Voltaire (1756), coincides with the development of the philosophy of history in the true sense. The question of the nature of history is much older, but the concept had not been fully developed earlier. In antiquity Plato regarded Athens as the copy of an original lost Athens, which represented the cyclic view of history, with history being incorporated into nature. In contrast, the Judeo-Christian view of history was linear. From the standpoint of God’s saving acts, human development …

1. Introduction In the Republic of Plato (427–347 b.c.) the ideal ruler excels at philosophy, or love of wisdom (Gk. philosophia, from philein, “to love,” and sophia, “wisdom”). This love comprises knowledge of what is highest and best, as well as wisdom in living one’s life well. Its enduring symbol is the owl associated with the goddess Athena. In the popular mind authentic philosophy is wisdom in living, more so than a highest knowledge. Misconceptions and caricatures of philosophers and philosophy abound. Philosophers are held in awe yet said to be inept in every…