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ʿUs̲h̲āḳ

(1,111 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, a town of western Anatolia, in modern Turkey Uşak (lat. 38° 42ʹ N., long. 29° 25ʹ E., altitude 907 m/2,976 feet). 1. History. In Antiquity, the town came within the empire of the Hittites, and the ruins of classical Flaviopolis are nearby. In the 8th/14th century it came within the beylik of the Germiyān-Og̲h̲ullari̊ [ q.v.]. The only extant waḳfiyye of this period, dated ¶ 721/1321, concerns the foundation of a zāwiye there by Yaʿḳūb I (Mustafa Çetin Varlik, Germiyan-oğullari tarihi (1300-1429 Ankara 1974, 43, 107), and the still-extant Ulu Cami is u…

Yas̲h̲

(1,473 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, the Ottoman Turkish form of the name of the Romanian town of Iaşi, conventionally Jassy. It lies on the plain of northeastern Moldavia near the confluence of the Bahlui river with the Prut (lat. 47° 10′ N., long. 27° 35′ E.). ¶ In Ottoman times, it was the capital of the principality of Bog̲h̲dān [ q.v.] or Moldavia. Dimitri Cantemir, from 1121-2/1710 to 1122-3/1711 resident in this town as prince of Moldavia, stated that the seat of government had been transferred to Yas̲h̲ by Stephen the Great (838 or 9-909 or 10/1435-1504; in reality this was do…

Ṭapu

(1,350 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(t.), a term of Ottoman fiscal administration. Poetic texts from the 8th/14th to 10th/16th centuries give the meanings “presence, proximity, lord, highly placed personage, service, duty, reverence” ( Tarama sözlüğü , v, 3748 ff.). In ḳānūnnāmes of the 9th/15th and particularly of the 10th/16th century, however, the word has a much more technical meaning, and signifies the holding of state-owned lands ( mīrī ) by a subject of the sultan, involving the mediation of an officially appointed tax-collector (holder of tīmār , zeʿāmet or k̲h̲āṣṣ , administrator of a waḳf

Semendire

(2,263 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, the Ottoman Turkish form of the Serbian town of Smederovo, older form Semendria. Lying on the Danube downstream from Belgrade [ q.v.] (lat. 44° 40′ N., long. 20° 56′ E.), it was in pre-modern times a fortified town and, under the Ottomans, the chef-lieu of a sand̲j̲aḳ of the same name. Since the break-up of Yugoslavia, it has come within the Serbian Republic. A first conquest under Murād II (842/1438) did not lead to permanent incorporation into the Ottoman Empire, since due to the crisis of 847-8/1444 the sultan thought it necessary to preserve the Serbia…

Ṣāmsūn

(2,215 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(modern Turkish spelling, Samsun), a town of northern Asia Minor, in the classical Pontus. The Byzantine settlement, known as Amisus, attracted the attention of the Dānis̲h̲mendids [ q.v.]; as Sāmiya, it is mentioned in the historical epos known as the Dānis̲h̲mend-nāme . The city passed into Turkish hands at the end of the 6th/12th century, but was temporarily retaken by the Byzantines; in 608-9/1212, Samsun formed part of the Comnene principality of Trebizond. When before 585/1189 Sultan Ḳi̊li̊d̲j̲ Arslan divide…

Rize

(1,378 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, a town on the northern, Black Sea coast of Asia Minor, in the eastern part of classical Pontus and in the later mediaeval Islamic Lazistān [see laz ], now in the Turkish Republic (lat. 41° 03′ N., long. 40° 31′ E.). In Byzantine times, Rhizus/Rhizaion was a place of some importance and was strongly fortified. With the Ottoman annexation of the Comneni empire of Trebizond in 865/1462 [see ṭarabzun ], it became part of the Ottoman empire. A list of Orthodox Church metropolitanates still in existence at the end of the 9th/15th century mentions…

Yaya

(376 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(t.), lit. “pedestrian”, denoted, in Ottoman military usage of the 8th-10th/14th-16th centuries, infantryman. Originally forming part of the k̲h̲āṣṣa army serving directly under the ruler, in the 10th/16th century the yaya were considered part of the provincial forces. According to Meḥmed Nes̲h̲rī [ q.v.], under Sultan Ork̲h̲ān peasant taxpayers were offered the opportunity of joining the army as yaya, and large numbers of people applied. Under Murād II, the yaya were supposedly given the nickname enik (puppy) as a form of derision (Nes̲h̲rī, Kitâb-ı Cihân-nümâ

Selānīk

(4,115 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, the Ottoman Turkish name for classical and early Byzantine Thessalonike, modern Greek Thessaloniki, conventional form Salonica; the largest city of Macedonia, on the gulf of the same name, to the east of the Vardar river mouth. The city has always possessed a large and secure port, and was located on the Via Egnatia connecting Durazzo (Durrës) with Byzantium. In the 5th/11th century, it is first named Salonikion, from which all variant names derive: Ṣalūnīk or Ṣalūnīḳ in Arabic, Solun in Bulga…

Izmīr

(2,852 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, the Turkish form of the ancient Greek name Smyrna , one of the great mercantile cities of the Eastern Mediterranean. It lies in western Anatolia at the head of the Gulf of Izmir, and the pre-modern city lay mainly on the small delta plain of the Kızılcullu (ancient Melas) river. Izmir has a history going back five millennia, archaeological excavations having revealed the earliest level of occupation as contemporary with the first city of Troy at the beginning of the Bronze Age ( ca. 3,000 B.C.). Greek settlement is indicated from ca. 1,000 B.C., and Herodotus says that the city was f…

Harem

(1,494 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
1. Harem und SelamlıkDer aus dem Arabischen stammende Ausdruck H. bezeichnet einen bes. geschützten Ort, an dem ein Mann mit seiner Familie lebt und der für männliche Besucher unzugänglich ist. Diese wurden/werden in einem osman.-türk. selamlık genannten speziellen Bereich, Besucherinnen (in Abwesenheit der männlichen Bewohner) im H. selbst empfangen. Im 18. Jh. galt der H. einer hochrangigen Familie als der spezielle Bereich der Ehefrau(en); es gehörte zum guten Ton, dass ein Ehemann ihn nicht gegen ihren Wunsch betrat. Auch war die bauliche Trennung von H. und selamlık, wie si…
Date: 2019-11-19

Osmanische Gesellschaft

(8,766 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
1. StädtelandschaftWie die meisten Imperien umfasste das Osmanische Reich (= O. R.) nicht eine einzige, sondern mehrere G. Konstantinopel (heute Istanbul) war schon um 1500 eine Metropole von 80 000–100 000 Einwohnern; gegen 1800 waren es mitsamt der Vororte rund 400 000. Außerhalb Istanbuls, auf dem Balkan und in West- wie Zentralanatolien, dominierten dagegen ländliche G. Um 1500 waren in Südosteuropa nur Sarajewo (Saraybosna), Adrianopel (Edirne) und Thessaloniki (Saloniki) als Provinzstädte von einiger Wichtigkeit; in Anatolien kam diese Rolle Bursa und in geringer…
Date: 2019-11-19

Maʿmūrat al-ʿAzīz

(1,168 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, a town in eastern Anatolia, modern Turkish Elaziğ, now the chef-lieu of a vilayet of the latter name. The area around the town is rich in evidence of prehistoric and protohistoric settlement. Bronze Age sites have been investigated at Ağin, Norçuntepe, Tepecik and Han İbrāhīm Şah, whilst traces of Hellenistic and later occupation have been found at Aşvankale and Kalecikler. Thus a more or less continuous occupation of the Elaziğ area since Chalcolithic times seems likely, even though it is not certain exactly at…

Mühimme Defterleri

(2,090 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(t.), a term of Ottoman Turkish administration. This series of “Registers of Important Affairs” is for the most part kept in the Başbakanlık Arşivi-Osmanlı Arşivi, Istanbul. Two hundred and sixty-three registers are ¶ catalogued as Mühimme Defterleri (MD), but in addition, we find registers and fragments of registers in other series which help fill some of the gaps in the MD series. On the other hand, thirteen registers catalogued as MDs are really appointment registers ( ruűs defterleri). Two registers in the Kâmil Kepeci section are also MDs, and two others have been l…

News̲h̲ehir

(1,220 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, modern Turkish Nevşehir, a town of central Anatolia in the Cappadocia of classical antiquity. It lies 60 km/40 miles to the west of Kayseri [see Ḳayṣariyya ] and 13 km/9 miles south of the Kızıl Irmak river [ q.v.] at an altitude of approx. 1,180 m/3,600 feet (lat. 38° 38′ N., long. 34° 43′ E.). It is now the chef-lieu of an il or province of the same name; in 1970 the town had a population of 57,556 and the il one of 231,873. The News̲h̲ehir region was in the 6th to 9th centuries AD known for its monastic caves, and became a frontier region during the Arab invasions. The inha…

Izmīd

(1,549 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, modern form İzmi̇t , a town of northwestern Turkey, lying at the head of the Gulf of Izmit (Izmit Körfezi) in lat. 40° 47′ N., long. 29° 55′ E. It is the classical Nicomedia, named after Nicomedes I of Bithynia, who in 264 B.C. founded it as his new capital. The Roman emperor Diocletian made it in the late 3rd century A.D. his capital in the east; it was there that he abdicated in 305 (see W. Ruge, art. Nikomedeia , in PW, xvii/1, cols. 468-92). The spelling Nikumīdiyya appears in such Arabic geographers as Ibn Ḵh̲urradād̲h̲bih and al-Idrīsī, and subsequently, forms like Izn…

Rewān

(2,282 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, Eriwan , the capital city of Armenia, possibly identical with the town called Arran by the Arab geographers Ibn Rusta and Ibn Faḳīh, which in Armenian is called Hrastan and Rewān in Ottoman sources. In Islamic times, the town seems to have become important from the mid-10th/16th century onward. The city is located close to the Armenian patriarchal seat of Echmiadzin, often referred to as Üčkilise “Three Churches” in Ottoman and European sources, even though there are actually four churches. In the 10th/16th century, the town fo…

Yaʿḳūb Pas̲h̲a

(615 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, physician and official for the Ottoman sultan Meḥemmed the Conqueror. Ottoman, Jewish and Venetian sources provide information about him, called Jacopo or Giacomo in Italian sources, yet due to the possibility that other personalities named Yaʿḳūb or even anonymous ones may have been intended by some of the surviving texts, much of his life remains obscure. He was born around 829-34/1425-30 and came from the Italian town of Gaeta. Of a Jewish family, he remained a Jew through most of his career, but beca…

Taḥrīr

(1,019 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(a.), a technical term of Ottoman administration. Derived from an Arabic verb which denotes “writing”, this word is at times used in the same sense in Ottoman Turkish as well. But as a technical term, taḥrīr has come to denote the Ottoman tax registers for the most part compiled during the 9th-10th/15th-16th centuries ( Başbakanlik Osmanh arşivi rehberi, Ankara 1992, 186-228, records them under this term, a synonym being tapu taḥrīr defterleri). This is one of the best-known series of the Ottoman archives, which in turn can be subdivided into defter-i mufaṣṣal , defter-i id̲j̲māl and defte…

S̲h̲āh Sulṭān

(1,387 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, a name used for several princesses of the Ottoman dynasty, among others for a daughter of Bāyezīd II (M. Çağatay Uluçay, Padişahlarin kadinlari ve kizlan , Ankara 1980, 29) and for a daughter of Muṣṭafā III ( ibid., 10), who endowed a mosque and zāwiye complex in Eyüp, Istanbul, still extant today. Here we will deal with two 10th/16th century princesses bearing This name. 1. S̲h̲āh Sulṭān, also known as S̲h̲āhī Sulṭān or Dewlets̲h̲āhī, daughter of Selīm I, was married before 929/1523 to Lüṭfī Pas̲h̲a, with whom she may have spent some time in Epirus. From T…

Mug̲h̲la

(1,706 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, modern Tksh. Muğla , a town of south-western Anatolia. In Antiquity it was known as Mobolla or Mogolla; the Byzantine period has not left any traces either in Mug̲h̲la itself or its immediate environment. From the second half of the 7th/13th century onward, the area was conquered by the Turks and became the site of the Mentes̲h̲e Og̲h̲ullari̊ [ q.v.] principality. This principality was centred upon Milas and Pečin (the latter settlement was finally abandoned in the middle of the 20th century and is today an important archeological site). Mug̲h̲la was s…

Yozgat

(474 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, a town of north central Anatolia, lying some 160 km/100 miles east of Ankara on both sides of a tributary of the Delice Irmak (lat. 39° 50’ N., long. 34° 48’ E., altitude 1,320 m/4,330 feet). It was founded by members of the D̲j̲ebbārzāde/Čapanog̲h̲lu family (supposedly yoz means “pasture, herd”, while gat is a dialectal word for “town”). On record since 1116/1704, this dynasty, possibly of Mamalu-Türkmen background, constituted one of the major aʿyān lines of central Anatolia, controlling a territory far beyond its original power-base in the sand̲j̲aḳ of Bozoḳ ( wilāyet

Sīwās

(2,440 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, the form found in Islamic sources from the 6th/12th century onwards for the Turkish town of Si̇vas , a town of north-east central Anatolia, lying in the broad valley of the Kızıl Irmak [ q.v.] at an altitude of 1,275 m/4,183 feet (lat. 39° 44′ N., long. 37° 01′ E.). It is now the chef-lieu of the il or province of the same name in the modern Turkish Republic. There may well have been a Hittite settlement there, but the site only emerges into history as the Roman city of Sebasteia, the capital of Armenia Minor under Diocletian. It was a wealthy and flourishing ci…

Ṭarabzun

(2,933 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, the Turkish form of Trebizond , Greek Τραπεζοῦς, a town on the Black Sea shores of northern Anatolia. At the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire after the Frankish-Venetian conquest of Byzantium in 600-601 /1204, Ṭarabzun, which had been occupied briefly by the Sald̲j̲ūḳs at the end of the 6th/11th century, became the centre of a principality governed by a branch of the Comnene dynasty. The latter continued to use the Byzantine imperial title, and the strong walls of the Citadel and Middle City (Orta Ḥiṣār), whi…

Izmīd

(1,581 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, forme moderne İzmi̇t, port du Nordouest de la Turquie, (40° 47′ N; 29° 55′ E) située sur la rive Nord du Golfe d’Izmit (Izmit Körfezi). C’est la Nicomédie classique, dont le nom dérive de Nicomède Ier de Bithynie, qui en 264 av. J.-C. fonda la ville pour en faire sa nouvelle capitale. L’empereur romain Dioclétien la choisit pour capitale de l’Est au IIIe s. ap. J.-C.; il y abdiqua en 305 (voir W. Ruge, art. Nikomedeia, dans PW, XVII/1, cols. 468-92). L’orthographe Nikumīdiyya apparaît chez des géographes arabes tels Ibn Ḵh̲urradād̲h̲bih et al-Idrīsī, et, par la suite, o…

Semendire

(2,304 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, forme turque ottomane de la ville serbe de Smederovo, anciennement Semendria. Située le long du Danube, en aval de Belgrade [ q.v] (44° 40’ N., 20° 56’ E.), c’était avant l’époque moderne une ville fortifiée et, sous les Ottomans, le chef-lieu d’un sand̲j̲aḳ du même nom. Depuis la partition de la Yougoslavie, elle fait partie de la République de Serbie. Une première conquête sous Murād II (842/1438) n’entraîna pas son annexion définitive à l’empire ottoman, puisqu’en raison de la crise de 847-8/1444, le sultan pensa qu’il était nécessaire de conserver l…

Selānīk

(4,330 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, nom turc-ottoman de la Thessalonique classique et byzantine, en grec moderne Thessaloniki, la forme conventionnelle étant Salonique, la plus grande ville de la Macédoine, située sur le golfe du même nom à l’Est de l’embouchure du fleuve Vardar. La ville, qui se trouvait sur la Via Egnatia reliant Durazzo (Dürres) à Byzance, a toujours eu un port important et sûr. Au XIe siècle, elle était appelée d’abord Salonikion, d’où sont dérivés tous les autres noms : Ṣalūnīk ou Ṣalūnīḳ en arabe, Solun en Bulgare, Selānīk en turc et Salonique en français. Au Xe siècle, la ville étant un centre im…

Mühimme Defterleri

(1,817 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(t.), terme technique de l’administration ottomane désignant des «registres des affaires importantes» conservés pour la plupart à Istanbul, Başbakanlik Arşivi — Osmanli Arşivi. Deux cent soixante-trois registres sont catalogués sous la rubrique Mühimme Defterleri (MD), mais on trouve en outre, dans d’autres séries, des registres complets ou fragmentaires qui permettent de combler des lacunes de celle des MD. D’autre part, treize registres catalogués comme MD concernent en réalité des nominations ( ruûs defterleri). Deux de la section Kâmil Kepeci sont réellement des…

Sīwās

(2,346 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, forme trouvée dans les sources islamiques à partir du VIe/XIIe siècle pour la ville turque de Sivas, au Nord-est de l’Anatolie centrale, dans la large vallée du Kîzîl Irmak [ q.v.], à une altitude de 1 275 m (lat. 39° 44′ N., long. 37° 01′ E.). C’est actuellement le chef-lieu de la province ( il) du même nom de la République Turque. Il a peut-être existé un établissement hittite à cet endroit, mais la ville n’apparaît dans l’histoire que comme la cité romaine de Sebasteia, capitale de l’Armenia Minor sous Dioclétien. Elle fut riche et prospère à l’époque …

Yas̲h̲

(1,501 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, forme turque ottomane du nom de la ville roumaine de Iaşi, nom usuel Iasi. Elle est située au Nord-est de la plaine de Moldavie, près du confluent de la Bahlui avec la Pr(o)ut (47° 10’ N.; 27° 35’. E.). A l’époque ottomane, ce fut la capitale de la principauté de Bog̲h̲dān [ q.v.] ou Moldavie. Dimitri Cantemir qui, de 1121-2/1710 à 1122-3/1711, résida dans cette ville en tant que prince de Moldavie, indiquait que le siège du gouvernement avait été transféré à Yas̲h̲ par Étienne le-Grand (838 ou 9-909 ou 10/1435-1504; en réalité, ce fut Alexandre…

Rize

(1,370 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, ville sur la côte anatolienne de la mer Noire, dans la partie orientale de l’antique Pont Euxin, et dans le Lazistān islamique médiéval [voir Laz], actuellement en République Turque (lat. 41° 03′ N., long. 40° 11′ E.). A l’époque byzantine, Rhizos/Rhizaion était une place d’une certaine importance, solidement fortifiée. Après l’annexion par les Ottomans de l’empire des Comnène de Trébizonde en 865/1462 [voir Ṭarabzun], elle fit partie de l’empire ottoman. Une liste des sièges de métropolites orthodoxes subsistant à la fin du IXe/XVe siècle mentionne cette ville, qui faisait …

Religious Practices: Zakāt (Almsgiving) and Other Charitable Practices: Ottoman Empire

(2,623 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
Providing charity: the early Ottoman period and the legacies of pre-Ottoman times Ottoman records on charity only rarely concern almsgiving not connected to vakıfs; and where such records exist, they do not refer to charities instituted by women. Most of the discussion in this entry therefore deals with pious foundations or vakıfs. Among the oldest surviving Ottoman docu- ments (1323), produced even before the death of the eponymous Sultan Osman, there is a text establishing the foundation of Aspurca Hatun, one of the wives of Sultan Orhan (r. 13…

Women in the Ottoman World: Mid-18th to Early 20th Century

(8,487 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
This entry concentrates on the – as yet – quite limited categories of women who have formed the focus of historical research. Partly because sources survive in greater or lesser numbers, but for the most part because of the vagaries of topic selection on the part of present-day scholars, we can point to certain “islands” about which something is known, but that are tiny compared to the wide uncharted seas of our ignorance. This has to do with the fact that Ottoman historians have largely approac…

Ottoman society

(9,468 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
1. Urban landscapeLike most empires, the Ottoman Empire comprised not one but many societies. Constantinople (now Istanbul) was already a metropolis of 80,000-100,000 inhabitants by 1500. By 1800, its population (including suburbs) was around 400,000. Outside Istanbul, in the Balkans and western and central Anatolia, on the other hand, rural societies dominated the picture. Around 1500, the only provincial cities of any importance in southeastern Europe were Sarajevo (Saraybosna), Adrianople (Edir…
Date: 2020-10-06

Harem

(1,649 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
1. Harem and selamlık The word “harem,” which comes from the Arabic, denotes a specially protected place where a man lives with his family, and which is closed to male visitors. Such visitors were received in a different area, called the  selamlık in Ottoman Turkish, while female visitors were received (in the absence of male residents) in the harem itself. During the 18th century, the harem of a high-ranking family was regarded as the preserve of the wife (or wives). It was good manners for the husband to refrain from entering it agai…
Date: 2019-10-14

News̲h̲ehir

(862 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, turc moderne Nevşehir, ville de l’Anatolie centrale, dans la Cappadoce de l’Antiquité classique, à 60 km à l’Ouest de Kayseri [voir Ḳayṣariyya] et à 13 au Sud du Kizil Irmak [ q.v.], à une altitude de 1180 m environ (38°38′ N., 34°43′ E.). Elle est aujourd’hui le chef-lieu d’un il ou province du même nom; en 1970, population de la ville: 57 556 habitants, de l’ il: 231 873. La région de News̲h̲ehir était connue, entre le VIe et le IXe siècles de J.-C, pour ses cavernes monastiques; elle devint une zone frontière pendant les invasions arabes. Les habitants se protégeaient e…

Yozgat

(473 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, ville du nord de l’Anatolie centrale, à 160 km à l’Est d’Ankara, construite sur les deux rives d’un affluent du Délice Irmak (39° 50’ N/34° 48’ E, altitude 1320 m.). Son nom proviendrait de yoz signifiant ‘troupeau’, ‘pâturage’ et de gat, en dialectal ‘ville’. Des membres de la famille Ḏj̲ebbārzāde Čapanog̲h̲lu l’auraient fondée; cette dynastie, dont l’existence est consignée depuis 1116/1704, pourrait être d’origine Mamalu-Turkmène. Elle constituait une des plus puissantes lignées d’ aʿyān en Anatolie centrale, contrôlant un territoire s’étendant bien au-delà de so…

Rewān

(2,354 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, Eriwan, capitale de l’Arménie, peutêtre identique à l’Arran des géographes arabes Ibn Rusta et Ibn al-Faḳīh; elle est appelée Hrastan en arménien, et Rewān dans les sources ottomanes. A l’époque islamique, la ville semble avoir pris de l’importance à partir du milieu du Xe/XVIe siècle. Elle se situe tout près d’Echmiadzin, siège du patriarcat arménien, souvent dénommé Üčkilise «Trois Eglises» dans les sources européennes et ottomanes, encore qu’elle englobe aujourd’hui quatre églises. Au Xe/XVIe siècle, la ville faisait partie de la Perse ṣafawide, mais fut attaquée…

Izmīr

(2,973 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, forme turque du nom Smyrna en grec ancien, l’une des villes marchandes de Méditerranée orientale. Elle est située en Anatolie occidentale au fond du golfe d’Izmir et la ville antérieurement à l’époque moderne se trouvait principalement dans la petite plaine du delta du Kizilcullu (ancienne Mêlas). Izmir a une histoire longue de cinq millénaires; des fouilles archéologiques ont révélé que le niveau d’occupation le plus ancien est contemporain de la première ville de Troie au début de l’Âge de Bronze…

S̲h̲ebṣefa (S̲h̲ebiṣefā, S̲h̲ebṣafā) Ḳadi̊n

(215 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, princesse ottomane (m. 1220/1805), probablement la sixième du rang des ḳadi̊ns du sultan ʿAbdüalḥamīd I. Elle était la mère d’un prince mort jeune, et de la princesse Hibetullāh Sulṭān (née en 1202/1788). En 1212/1798, elle acquit le čiftlik de Ḏj̲ihānzāde Ḥuseyin Beg, et devint aussi propriétaire de terres agricoles au voisinage de Salonique (Selānik [ q.v.]), sans parler d’une pension prélevée sur les revenus des douanes d’Istanbul. S̲h̲ebṣefā Ḳadi̊n est créditée d’une fondation portant son nom dans le quartier de Zeyrek à Istanbul, créée en 1202…

Ṭapu

(1,406 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(t.), terme de l’administration fiscale ottomane. Textes poétiques du VIIIe/XIVe siècle au Xe/XVIe siècle ayant les significations suivantes :¶ «présence, proximité, seigneur, personnage haut placé, service, devoir, révérence» ( Tarama sözlüğü, 3748 et s.). Cependant, dans les ḳānūnnāmes du IXe/XVe siècle, et en particulier dans ceux du Xe/XVIe, le mot a un sens beaucoup plus technique et signifie la possession de terres d’État ( mīrī) par un sujet du sultan, impliquant l’intervention d’un collecteur d’impôts nommé officiellement (propriétaire d’un tīmār, zeʾāmet ou k̲h̲aṣṣ, …

Ṣāmsūn

(2,210 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(forme turque moderne Samsun), ville du Nord de l’Asie Mineure dans le Pont classique. L’établissement byzantin, connu sous le nom d’Amisus, attira l’attention des Danis̲h̲mendides [ q. v.]; sous celui de Sāmiya, elle est mentionnée dans l’épopée historique dite Dānis̲h̲mend-nāme. La ville passa aux mains des Turcs à la fin du VIe/XIIe siècle, mais fut brièvement reprise par les Byzantins; en 608-9/1212, Samsun fit partie de la Principauté des Comnène de ¶ Trébizonde. Avant 585/1189, lorsque le Sultan Ḳilid̲j̲ Arslan partagea son Etat entre ses fils, la ville passa…

ʿUs̲h̲āḳ

(1,195 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, ville d’Anatolie occidentale, Uşak (38° 42′ N., 29° 25ʹ E., ait. 907 m.) en Turquie contemporaine. Histoire. Dans l’antiquité, la ville lit partie de l’empire des Hittites, et les ruines de la ville classique de Flaviopolis sont proches. Au VIIIe/XIVe s., elle dépendait du beylik de Germiyān-Oghullari̊ [ q.v.]. La seule waḳfiy̲y̲e̲ conservée de cette période, datée de 721/1321, concerne la fondation d’une zāwiye en ce lieu par Yaʿḳūb Ier (Mustafa Çetin Varhk, Germiyan-Oğullan Tarihi (1300-1429), Ankara 1974, 43, 107); la Ulu Cami, encore préservée, n’est pas datée mai…

Ṭarabzun

(3,124 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, forme turque de Trebizonde, τραπε-ζοῦΣ en grec, ville située au bord de la Mer noire au Nord de l’Anatolie. A la dissolution de l’Empire byzantin après la conquête franco-vénitienne de Byzance en 600-601/ 1204, Ṭarabzun, qui avait été brièvement occupée par les Sald̲j̲ūḳs à la fin du VIe/XIe siècle, devint le centre d’une principauté gouvernée par une branche de la dynastie Comnène. Cette dernière continua à utiliser le titre impérial byzantin et les solides murailles de la citadelle et de la ville moyenne (Orta Ḥiṣār) qui dataient de l’épo…

Mug̲h̲la

(1,752 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, orth. turque moderne Muǧla, ville du Sud-ouest de l’Anatolie. Elle était connue dans l’Antiquité sous le nom de Mobolla ou Mogolla; la période byzantine n’a laissé aucune trace dans la ville et dans ses environs immédiats. A partir de la seconde moitié du VIIe/XIIIe siècle, la région fut aux mains des Turcs et devint le territoire de la principauté des Mentes̲h̲e Og̲h̲ullari̊ [ q.v.], dont les centres étaient Milas [ q.v.] et Pečin (qui, abandonné au milieu du XXe siècle, est devenu un important site archéologique). Mug̲h̲la servit parfois de résidence à des princes mine…

Yaya

(410 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, (t.), littéralement «piéton», signifiait, dans l’usage militaire ottoman des VIIIe-Xe/XIVe-XVIe siècles, fantassin. Appartenant, originellement, à l’armée k̲h̲āṣṣa qui servait directement sous les ordres du souverain, au Xe/XVIe siècle, les yayas faisaient partie des forces de province. D’après Meḥmed Nes̲h̲rī [ q.v.], sous le sultan Ork̲h̲ān l’occasion fut donnée aux contribuables paysans de rejoindre l’armée en tant que yaya, et un grand nombre de gens s’enrôlèrent. Sous Murād II, les yayas sont censés avoir reçu le sobriquet d’ enik («chiot») par dérision (Nes̲h̲rī, Kitâb…

Yaʿḳūb Pas̲h̲a

(652 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
médecin et fonctionnaire du Sultan ottoman Meḥemmed le Conquérant. Les sources ottomanes, juives et vénitiennes fournissent des renseignements au sujet de cet homme, appelé Jacopo ou Giacomo dans les sources italiennes, mais étant donné la possibilité que certains des textes subsistants visent d’autres personnes du nom de Yaʿḳūb ou même des anonymes, une grande partie de sa vie reste dans l’ombre. Originaire de la ville italienne de Gaeta, il naquit vers 829-34/1425-30. Né dans une famille juive, il deme…

S̲h̲āh Sulṭān

(1,374 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, nom de plusieurs princesses de la dynastie ottomane, notamment d’une fille de Bāyezīd II (M. Çağatay Uluçay, Padişahlarin kadinlari ve kizlari, Ankara 1980, 29) et d’une fille de Muṣṭafā III ( ibid., 10), qui fonda un complexe de mosquée- zāiwiye à Eyüp (Istanbul) existant encore aujourd’hui. Il sera question ici de deux princesses du Xe/XVIe siècle ayant porté ce nom. 1. S̲h̲āh Sulṭān, également appelée S̲h̲āhī Sulṭān ou Dewlets̲h̲āhī, fille de Selīm I mariée avant 929/1523 à Lüṭfī Pas̲h̲a, avec lequel elle doit avoir passé quelque temps en Epire. Il n…

Taḥrīr

(1,044 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
(a.), terme technique de l’administration ottomane dérivé de la racine arabe qui signifie «écrire»; ce mot est parfois également utilisé avec le même sens en turc ottoman. Mais en tant que terme technique, taḥrīr en vint à désigner les registres des impôts ottomans compilés pour la plus grande part au cours du IXe-Xe/XVe-XVIe siècle ( Başbakanlik Osmanli arşivi rehberi, Ankara 1992, 186-228, les cite par ce terme, un synonyme en étant tapu taḥrīr defterleri). C’est l’une des séries d’archives ottomanes les plus connues et elles peuvent à leur tour être divisées en defteri mufaṣṣal, def…

S̲h̲ebṣefā (S̲h̲ebiṣefā, S̲h̲ebṣafā) Ḳadi̊n

(220 words)

Author(s): Faroqhi, Suraiya
, Ottoman princess (d. 1220/1805), probably the sixth in rank among the ḳadi̊n s of Sultan ʿAbdülḥamīd I. She was the mother of a prince who died young and of Princess Hibetullāh Sulṭān (b. 1202/1788). In 1212/1798 she acquired the čiftlik of D̲j̲ihān-zāde Ḥüseyin Beg, and also owned agricultural land in the vicinity of Salonica or Selānik [ q.v.], apart from a pension out of the funds of the Istanbul customs. S̲h̲ebṣefā Ḳadi̊n is noted for the foundation bearing her name in the Istanbul area of Zeyrek, established in 1202/1787 according to the inscrip…

Mag̲h̲nisa

(1,477 words)

Author(s): Minorsky, V. | Faroqhi, Suraiya
, modern Turkish form Manisa, classical Magnesia, a town of western Anatolia, in the ancient province of Lydia, lying to the south of the Gediz river on the northeastern slopes of the Manisa Daği, which separates it from Izmir or Smyrna (lat. 38° 36′ N., long 27° 27′ E.). In Greek and then Roman times, Magnesia ad Sipylum was a flourishing town, noted amongst other things for the victory won in its vicinity by the two Scipios over Antiochus the Great of Syria in 190 B.C., and continued to flourish under the Byzantines (see Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie , xxvii, 472-…
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