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[English Version] Rijswijker Klausel, Bez. der Regelung des Art.4 des Friedensvertrages von Rijswijk (bei Den Haag), mit dem am 29.9./30.10.1697 der Pfälzische Krieg (seit 1688) endete. Der Frieden zwang Ludwig XIV., alle seit 1679 erlangten Réunionsgebiete zu restituieren und die seit 1688 militärisch besetzte Kurpfalz (nicht das 1681 annektierte Straßburg) zurückzugeben. Art.4 garantierte, entgegen der Normaljahrsregelung (annus normalis) des Westfälischen Friedens, den kath. Konfessionsstand in…

[English Version] Richelieu, Jean Armand Du Plessis Duc de (9.9.1585 Paris – 4.12.1642 ebd.), franz. Staatsmann und Kardinal (1622), wurde 1607 Dr. theol. der Sorbonne, 1608 mit päpstl. Dispens wegen fehlenden kanonischen Alters Bf. von Luçon und nahm als solcher an der Generalständeversammlung von 1614 teil, in deren Schlußsitzung er eine Rede hielt und die Politik der Regentin Maria von Medici unterstützte, die ihn 1616 zum Minister im Staatsrat berief. Nach Beginn der Herrschaft Ludwigs XIII. (1617) …

[English Version] (Napolione Buonaparte; 15.8.1769 Ajaccio, Korsika – 5.5.1821 St. Helena), Kaiser der Franzosen. 1785 franz. Artillerieleutnant, 1793 der »Bergpartei« um M. Robespierre verbunden und nach der Rückeroberung von Toulon (Dezember 1793) zum General befördert, wurde N. nach dem 9. Thermidor (27.7.1794) vorübergehend aus der Armee entlassen. Nach der Niederschlagung des royalistischen Aufstandes in Paris (5.10.1795) 1796 Oberbefehlshaber der Italienarmee, führten seine Siege zum Frieden…

[English Version] Retz, Jean-François-Paul de Gondi de (getauft 20.9.1613 Montmirail, Département Marne – 24.8.1679 Paris), nach Theologiestudium 1644 Koadjutor, 1652 Kardinal, 1654 Erzbf. von Paris, 1662 Abt von St. Denis. R. war polit. Gegner J. Mazarins und Ludwigs XIV. Er organisierte den Aufstand der Fronde 1648–1653, wurde 1652 verhaftet, konnte aus der Haft heraus den Erzbischofsstuhl von Paris erlangen, wurde zur Demission gezwungen (von Papst Innozenz X. nicht anerkannt), konnte 1654 fliehen …

[English Version] . S. bez. im weiteren Sinne 1. das gleichberechtigte (Parität) oder für eine Seite erzwungene Zusammenleben zweier oder mehrerer Konfessionen in einem Territorium und im engeren Sinne 2. die gemeinsame Nutzung kirchl. Einrichtungen, v.a. von Kirchengebäuden, durch Angehörige zweier oder mehrerer Konfessionen. Unter 1. fällt das durch die Rijswijker Klausel (1697) begründete Nebeneinander von Reformierten, Lutheranern und Katholiken in der Kurpfalz und in den restituierten Réunion…

[English Version] Werkmeister, Leonhard (1808: v.; Klostername: Benedikt Maria; 22.10.1745 Füssen – 16.7.1823 Stuttgart), trat 1764/65 in das Benediktinerkloster Neresheim ein, studierte in Benediktbeuern und wurde 1769 zum Priester geweiht. 1770 Novizenmeister, lehrte W. 1772–1774 und 1778–1780 Philos. in Freising und wurde 1780 in Neresheim Leiter der Studien, bis er 1784 von dem kath. Herzog Karl Eugen von Württemberg als Hofprediger berufen wurde. 1791 verließ er den Orden und wurde 1796 (–1819) …

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[English Version] Schwendi, Lazarus von (1522 Mittelbiberach – 28.5.1584 Kirchhofen im Breisgau), kaiserlicher Feldoberst, studierte in Basel und Straßburg, nahm am Schmalkaldischen Krieg, an den Kämpfen gegen Frankreich und, seit 1564 als Oberbefehlshaber, in Ungarn teil. In Denkschriften, v.a. von 1570 und 1574, trat er für Verbesserungen der Kreisverfassung und des Kriegswesens des Reiches mit dem Ziel einer stärkeren Zentralisierung und auf den Reichstagen zw. 1566 und 1576 für den Land- und Religionsfrieden und für rel. Toleranz ein.…

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[English Version] Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques (10.5.1727 Paris – 20.3.1781 ebd.), von der Physiokratie beeinflußter Wirtschaftstheoretiker, seit 1774 Generalkontrolleur der Finanzen, suchte den Staatsbankrott Frankreichs durch Einsparungen und Steuerreformen abzuwenden. Mit seinen Reformedikten brachte er die Privilegierten gegen sich auf und wurde am 10.5.1776 entlassen. Harm Klueting Bibliography E. Brian, La mesure de l'etat, 1994, dt. Staatsvermessungen, 2001 M. Hill, Statesman of Enlightenment, 1999 J.-P. Poirier, T. Laissez-faire et progrès social, 1999 B. P…

[English Version] Riegger, Paul Joseph v. (29.6.1705 Freiburg i.Br. – 2.12.1775 Wien), Kanonist, nach Studium u.a. in Leiden und Dr. iur. utr. in Freiburg 1733–1749 Prof. für Natur- und Reichsstaatsrecht in Innsbruck, 1749 an der Savoyischen Ritterakademie in Wien und 1753–1773 Prof. für Kirchenrecht an der Universität Wien. R., 1764 geadelt, legte mit der theoretischen Trennung von Kirche und Staat und der Abgrenzung ihrer Zuständigkeitsbereiche die Grundlage des josephinischen Staatskirchenrechts, ohne schon im strengen Sinne Vertret…

[English Version] Oldenbarnevelt, Johann van (25.9.1547 …

[German Version] (Jan 24, 1712, Berlin – Aug 17, 1786, Sanssouci near Potsdam), king in (from 1772: of) Prussia. Following a strict religious upbringing, the son of Frederick William I soon turned to a religion of reason, which led to clashes with his father in 1726. The conflict escalated when the crown prince tried to escape in 1730, whereupon he was held under arrest in Küstrin. The price of the reconciliation with his father was Frederick's marriage to Elisabeth Christine v. Braunschweig-Bever…

[German Version] (May 10, 1727, Paris – Mar 20, 1781, Paris), French economic theorist influenced by physiocracy. Appointed comptroller-general of finance in 1774, he sought to avert French national bankruptcy through economies and tax reforms. His reform edicts turned the privileged classes against him and he was dismissed on May 10, 1776. Harm Klueting Bibliography E. Brian, La mesure de l’etat, 1994 M. Hill, Statesman of Enlightenment, 1999 J.-P. Poirier, Turgot. Laissez-faire et progrès social, 1999 B. Plé, BBKL XVIII, 2001, 14…

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[German Version] (1502, Paris – Mar 23, 1566, Genega), seigneur de Passy. After studying law, he was appointed counselor of state and parliamentary counselor in Paris; he was appointed bishop of Nevers in 1548. In 1559 he resigned, fled to Geneva, and became a Protestant, having been suspected of Protestant sympathies for some time. In the background was an adulterous relationship in the distant past and a desire to legitimate a love affair and the children it produced. Together with T. Beza, Spifame played a ro…

[German Version] (also Hoon, Honius, Honnius; died 1524 in The Hague) attended the school of the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life in Utrecht and became an attorney at law in The Hague. In 1523, he was imprisoned after a religious disputation. Hoen had acquired Wessel Gansfort's De sacramento eucharistiae from the estate of the deceased Jacobus Hoeck, the reading of which led him to interpret the est in hoc est corpus meum (1Cor 11:24) in the sense of significat. The letter in which he discloses this interpretation to J. (Hinne) Rode, which some believe to have origin…

[German Version] (Sep 9, 1585, Paris – Dec 4, 1642, Paris), French statesman and cardinal (1622). Richelieu gained the degree of Dr.theol. at the Sorbonne in 1607; in 1608, with papal dispensation because he was under the canonical age, he became bishop of Luçon, and in that capacity took part in the assembly of the States-General of 1614. In its final session he made a speech supporting the policies of the regent Marie de Medici, who in 1616 appointed him a minister in the council of state. After the beginning …

[German Version] (1571/1573, Danzig – Aug [Jul?] 25,1608, Danzig), Reformed philosopher and polymath. He studied at the Danzig Gymnasium, in Wittenberg, Leipzig, and Heidelberg and graduated as Mag.phil. in 1595 and Lic. theol. in 1600, and was professor of Hebrew in Heidelberg from 1600 onward. He returned to Danzig in 1601 and became deputy principal at the Gymnasium. As a philosopher, Keckermann was the most prominent representative of an Aristotelian, anti-Ramist (P. Ramus) scholastic philosop…

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[German Version] (from 1809, Count; Sep 10, 1759, Munich – Jun 14, 1838, Munich), son of a Bavarian general of Savoyard descent. Montgelas wrote in 1789 the Mémoire instructif sur les droits des ducs de Bavière en matière ecclésiastique, and in 1796 the Ansbach Memorandum with a program of reform for Bavaria, whose policies he directed…

[German Version] (Napolione Buonaparte; Aug 15, 1769, Ajaccio, Corsica – May 5, 1821, St. Helena), emperor of the French. Lieutenant of the French artillery since 1785, Napoleon joined the “Montangards” around M. Robespierre in 1793; after the recapture of Toulon in December of 1793, he was promoted to general. After 9 Thermidor (Jul 27, 1794), he was temporarily dismissed from the army. After the defeat of the royalist uprising in Paris (Oct 5, 1795), he was made commander in chief of the Army of…

[German Version] (1522, Mittelbiberach – May 28, 1584, Kirchhofen im Breisgau), imperial diplomat and military commander. After studying at Basel and Straßburg (Strasbourg), he led forces in the Schmalkaldic War, wars with France, and (as commander-in-chief after 1564) in Hungary. In memoranda (esp. 1570 and 1574), he urged improvements in the Empire’s district organization and warfare, with the goal of greater centralization. At the Imperial Diets between 1566 and 1576, he urged public and religious peace, along with religious toleration.…

[German Version] (Aug 27, 1776, Copenhagen – Jan 2, 1831, Bonn), historian. He was appointed director of the state bank of Denmark in 1804 and of the “Preußische Seehandlung” (Prussian Maritime Trading Company) in 1806. In 1810 he lectured on Roman history in Berlin. From 1816 to 1823, he served as Prussian ambassador …

[German Version] (baptized Sep 20, 1613, Montmirail, Département Marne – Aug 24, 1679, Paris). After studying theology, he was appointed coadjutor of Paris 1644; in 1652 he was made a cardinal, in 1654 archbishop of Paris, and in 1662 abbot of St. Denis. A political opponent of J. Mazarin and Louis XIV, he organized the uprising of the …

[German Version] (Giulio Raimondi; Jul 14, 1602, Pescina, Abruzzi – Mar 9, 1661, Vincennes, near Paris), cardinal and French prime minister. He studied at the Jesuit College in Rome (Jesuits), received the Dr.iur.utr., and was captain of a papal regiment. In 1631, in the Mantuan War of Succession, he negotiated the treaties of Cherasco, which brought France Pignerolo as a gateway into northern Italy and brought Mazarin the protection of Richelieu. From 1634 to 1636, Mazarin was nuncio in Paris and…

[German Version] I. Research Paradigm – II. Recent Developments – III. 19th Century I. Research Paradigm Confessionalization is the forming of state, society, and culture as a result of the formation of a denomination in the sense of the construction of a dogmatic system of doctrine. Confessionalization is seen in association with the early-modern state and social discipline, the backgrounds of which are sought in church discipline. The starting point was the Reformation (Schilling, Konfessionskonflikt; Reformierte Konfessionalisierung). After criticism of the term …

[German Version] (ennobled in 1808; monastic name Benedikt Maria; Oct 22, 1745, Füssen – Jul 16, 1823, Stuttgart). In 1764/1765 Werkmeister entered the Benedictine abbey of Neresheim; he studied in Benediktbeuern and was ordained to the priesthood in 1769. In 1770 he became novice master. From 1772 to 1774 and 1778 to 1780, he taught philosophy in Freising; in 1780 he became head of studies in Neresheim. In 1784 he was appointed court chaplain by the Catholic duke Karl Eugen of Württemberg. In 179…

[German Version] (Joest Lips; Oct 18, 1547, Overijse, near Brussels – Mar 23, 1606, Louvain), late Humanist and Latin philologist. Lipsius was professor at Jena from 1572 to 1574, moved to Louvain in 1576, to …

[German Version] name given to the stipulation in art. 4 of the Treaty of Rijswijk (Rijswick, near …

[German Version] In the broader sense (1), a simultaneum is the coexistence of two or more denominations in one territory, in parity or under constraint for one party. In a narrower sense (2), it involves the shared use of church facilities, especially church buildings, by members of two or more denominations. An example of (1) is the coexistence of Reformed, Lutherans, and Catholics in the Electoral Palatinate and the restored occupied territories under the Rijswijk Clause (1697). Prior …

[German Version] The “shimmering and ambiguous term Josephinism” (Klueting, Josephinismus, 1) originated in the early 19th century and refers to Joseph II; the phenomenon existed long before 1780. In scholarship, Josephinism initially referred only to the state's policy toward the church (Winter, Maaß). Following Valjavec, Josephinism is now often understood as a shorthand term for all the reforms in the…

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[German Version] (L'Hôpital; 1507, Aigueperse, Puy-de-Dôme – Mar 13, 1573, Bellébat near Paris) was a French statesman who had studied in Toulouse and Padua, and a jurist educated in theology and the humanities. From 1537, he was a member of the “Parlement” in Paris, and in 1547 he participated in the Council of Trent. After holding high state offices, in 1560 he became chancellor to the queen mother Catharine de Medici (1519–1589), who was regent during the minority of Charles IX (reigned from 15…

[German Version] (Sep 25, 1547, Amersfoort – May 13, 1619, The Hague), Netherlands politician. In 1585 he supported the appointment of Maurits of Orange as governor of Holland and Zeeland. From 1586 he was a council official of the province of Holland. From 1587, he worked with Maurits for the consolidation of the republic of the United Netherlands, and in 1609 negotiated the 12-year truce with Spain. Oldenbarnevelt took the side of the Arminians and the Remonstration of 1610, and in foreign policy tended towards Catholic France, thereby alienating himself from Maurits, who supported F. Gomarus and the Counter-Remonstrants. His arrest in July 1618 opened the way for the Synod of Dort (1618/1619). Oldenbarnevelt had opposed its convening, mainly because of particularism on behalf of the province of Holland, since a national synod seemed to go against the autonomy of the dominant province. His arrest was prompted, however, by the raising of regiments of municipal mercenaries, which Maurits interpreted as high treason. While H. Grotius and other simi…

[German Version] Holy Roman Emperor, king of Bohemia, king of Hungary, archduke of Austria (Mar 13, 1741, Vienna – Feb 22, 1790, Vienna), oldest son of Maria ¶ Theresia (1717–1780), the last of the Habsburgs, and her spouse, Franz Stephan of Lorraine (1708–1765), elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1745 as Franz I. Joseph was elected king of the Holy Roman Empire in 1764 and became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in 1765. In the Austrian monarchy (Austria), he became co-regent with his mother in 1765. In 1780, he took over full sovereignty. Joseph had childless marriages from 1760 with Maria Isabella of Parma (died 1763) and …

[English Version] (Wier), 1.  Johannes (1515 Grave, Noordbrabant – 24.2.1588 Tecklenburg), war Schüler des H.C. Agrippa von Nettesheim und nach Studien in Paris von 1550–1578 Leibarzt Herzog Wilhelms des Reichen von Jülich-Kleve-Berg. W. wandte sich gegen den »Hexenhammer« (zuerst 1487) der Dominikaner Jakob Sprenger und Heinrich Institoris und suchte – gegen starke Widerstände (u.a. von J. Bodin…

[German Version] 1. Johannes (1515, Grave, Brabant – Feb 24, 1588, Tecklenburg), physician, occultist, and demonologist. Weyer was a disciple of H.C. Agrippa of Nettesheim. ¶ After studying in Paris, he served as personal physician to Duke William the Rich of Jülich-Kleve-Burg from 1550 to 1578. He attacked the Hexenhammer (first publ. 1487) of the Dominicans Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich Institoris and sought – against strong resistance (including from J. Bodin) – to unmask belief in witches (II) as a delusion, but he was no more successful than Johann Friedrich de Ponzinibus, Andreas Alciati, and Reginald Scot in eradicating belief in witches. After F. Spee (Spe) v. Langenfeld (…

[German Version] I. Church History – II. Law – III. Practical Theology – IV. Systematic Theology I. Church History 1. Early Church The Roman state (Roman Empire) tolerated philosophical atheism and a multitude of cults that flooded in from its conquered territories, but it refused to tolerate rejection of the cult of the official gods ( …