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, the twenty-eighth Sulṭān of the Ottoman Empire, reigned from 1203 (1789) to 1222 (1807). He was born on Ḏj̲umādā I 26, 1175 (Dec. 24, 1761), a son of Sulṭān Muṣṭafā III and the Wālide Sulṭān Mihr-S̲h̲āh (d. 1805; see Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, i. 83) and succeeded on Rad̲j̲ab II, 1203 (Apr. 7, 1789), to his uncle ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd I [q. v.] who had died on that day. Selīm’s reign is characterised by disastrous wars against the European powers and revolts in the interior, showing the weakness of the Ottoman Empire, and at the same time by th…

, eighth Īlk̲h̲ān of Persia, reigned from 1304 till 1317. He was, like his predecessor G̲h̲āzān, a son of Arg̲h̲ūn and a great-grandson of Hūlāgū. At his accession ¶ he was 24 years of age. In his youth he had been given the surname of Ḵh̲arbanda, for which different explanations are given (cf. the poem by Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn reproduced on p. 46 of E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, iii. p. 46 sq. and Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, ii. 115), but E. Blochet, in his Introduction à l’histoire des Mongols (G. M. S., xii. 51), has explained the name as a Mongolian word, meaning “the third”. The Byzantin…

, an Arabic word which, like maḥall from the same root, originally means a place where one makes a halt. Maḥalla thus came to have the special meaning of a quarter of a town, a meaning which has also passed into Turkish (e. g. the Yeñi Maḥalle quarter in Constantinople), into Persian and Hindūstānī (where the popular pronunciation is muḥalla); the term formerly applied to a quarter of a town used to be dār (as in old Bag̲h̲dād). The maḥalla’s are often under the administration of a special official called muk̲h̲tār. In Egypt the word maḥalla is frequently found as the first element in the…

, ninth sulṭān of the Ottoman Empire, known in history as Yawuz Sulṭān Selīm, reigned 918—926(=1512—1520). He was one of the sons of Bāyazīd II, born in 872 (= 1467/68) or 875 (= 1470/71) ( Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, i. 38). Towards the end of his father’s reign, he was governor of the sand̲j̲aḳ of Trebizond. Although his brother Aḥmed, older than he but younger than prince Ḳorḳud, had been designated his successor by Bāyazīd, Selīm also cherished designs on the throne, knowing that he had the support of the greater part of the army.…

, site on the right bank of the Nile, opposite the little town of Mallawī, in the province of Minya. The distance between the Nile and the mountains (here called Ḏj̲abal al-S̲h̲aik̲h̲ Saʿīd) is about 3 miles, while to the north and the south the mountains come close to the river, leaving an area of about 5 miles in length. One of the villages situated here is called al-Tell (or al-Till); Tell al-ʿAmarna seems to be a “European concoction” (Flinders Pétrie) and is properly Tell al-ʿAmārina, from …

, very often called ʿOt̲h̲mān G̲h̲āzī, founder of the dynasty of Ottoman sulṭāns and the first in the traditional series of the members of the dynasty. We are only imperfectly acquainted with the life and personality of this founder of a great empire but we may conclude from the fact that his name ¶ has remained attached to the dynasty of the ʿOt̲h̲mān Og̲h̲ullari̊ or Āl-i ʿOt̲h̲mān and is later found in the description of the empire and its inhabitants as ʿOt̲h̲mānli̊ or ʿOt̲h̲mānī, that behind the name of ʿOt̲h̲mān there lies a powerful personal…

(t.), the “ceremony of the sword” also called taḳlīd al-saif or taḳlīd-i s̲h̲ems̲h̲īr. It was the ceremony of investiture of the Ottoman Sulṭāns, which took the place of coronation. The ceremony generally took place shortly after the baiʿat, or homage to the new Sulṭān. The latter, leaving his palace went by barge with great pomp to the faubourg of Aiyūb. Here he disembarked and went to the türbe of Abū Aiyūb al-Anṣārī [q. v.], accompanied by the S̲h̲aik̲h̲ al-Islām, the Ḳāḍī ʿAsker, the Grand Vizier, the Naḳīb al-As̲h̲rāf and a li…

, the name of a sect in Northern Mesopotamia to the south of Moṣul. This sect is also a kind of tribe called Sarlīs and lives in six villages, four of which lie on the right bank and two on thé left of the Great Zāb, not far from its junction with the Tigris. The principal village, where the chief lives, is called Warsak, and lies on the right bank; the largest village on the left bank is Sefīye. The Sarīls, like the other sects found in Mesopotamia (Yazīdīs, S̲h̲abaks, Bād̲j̲ūrān), are very uncommunicative with regard to their belief and religious practices, so that the o…

A. — I. Historical and Ethnographical Survey. The word Turk (Chin. Tu-küe, Greek Τοῦρκοι) first appears as the name of a nomad people in the sixth century a. d. In this century a powerful nomad empire was founded by the Turks, which stretched from Mongolia and the northern frontier of China to the Black Sea. The founder of the empire, called Tu-men by the Chinese (in the Turkish inscriptions: Bu-mi̊n) died in 552; his brother Istämi (Chin.S̲h̲e-tie-mi, Greek ΔιζάβουλοΣ, ΔιλζíβουλοΣ and ΣιλζíβουλοΣ; in al-Ṭabarī, i. 895 and…

, a place in al-ʿIrāḳ, on the left bank of the Tigris, between Bag̲h̲dād and ʿAmāra, 100 miles S. E. of Bag̲h̲dād as the crow flies. Kūt is the Hindustānī word koṭ meaning “fortress” found in other place-names in al-ʿIrāḳ, like Kūt al-Muʿammir; Kūt al-ʿAmāra is often simply called Kūt. Kūt lies opposite the mouth of the S̲h̲aṭṭ al-Ḥaiy, also called al-G̲h̲arrāf, the old canal connecting the Tigris with the Euphrates, which has several junctions with the Euphrates, e. g. at Nāṣirīya and Sūḳ al-S̲h̲uyūk̲h̲. The plains to the no…

(popular pronunciation Tikrīt, cf. Yāḳūt), a town on the right bank of the Tigris to the north of Sāmarrā (according to Streck the distance is a day’s journey) and at the foot of the range of the Ḏj̲abal Ḥamrīn. Geographically this is the northern frontier district of the ʿIrāḳ. The land is still somewhat undulating; the old town was built on a group of hills, on one of which beside the river, stands the modern town. To the north is a sandstone cliff 200 feet above the level of the river, on which…

(also Cavalla), a seaport on the Aegean Sea, opposite the island of Thasos on the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace. In ancient times Neapolis lay here, the port of the town of Philippi, just as Ḳawāla is now the harbour for the district of Drama. The town is partly built on a promontory which is still surrounded by walls which date from the middle ages; there is a harbour on both sides. An aqueduct has also survived from the middle ages. Ḳawāla was captured by the Turks from the Byzantines…

, Turkish corsair and admiral in the xvith century. He was born in a village of Calabria called Licastelli, about 1500, as, at the time of his death in 1587, he is said to have been over ninety years old. Ochialy is the name by which he is known in Italian sources of the time; the Turkish sources call him Ulud̲j̲ ʿAlī, which name probably was given to him in Northern Africa. It may be the Arabic plural ʿulūd̲j̲ (from ʿild̲j̲), denoting his foreign descent (Hammer, G.O. R.2, ii. 481,751 gives conflicting statements). After being a captured galley slave, he became a Muḥammadan and e…

was in the middle ages a large town in the canal region of the Tigris Delta, east of al-Baṣra. It was situated on the right bank of the Tigris and on the north side of the large canal called Nahr al-Obolla, which was the main waterway from al-Baṣra in a southeastern direction to the Tigris and further to ʿAbbādān and the sea. The length of this canal is generally given as four farsak̲h̲s or two barīds (al-Maḳdisī). Al-Obolla can be identified with ’Απολόγου ’Εμπόριον, mentioned in the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Geogr. Graeci Minores, i. 285) as lying near the coast. In a story told by al-Masʿūdī ( Mur…

, a town and seaport on the north coast of Asia Minor between the mouths of the Saḳariya [q. v.] and the Ḳi̊zi̊l I̊rmaḳ [q. v.] and about equidistant from the ports of Ṣamsūn and Ineboli, 75 miles N. E. of Ḳasṭamūnī [q. v.]. It is the celebrated Σινώπη of the ancients and has retained this name. Muḥammadan authors know it by the name of Sanūb (Abu ’l-Fidāʾ, p. 392 and Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī, Masālik al-Abṣār, N.E., xiii. 361), Ṣanūb (Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, ii. 348), Sināb (Anon. Giese, p. 34; Urud̲j̲ Beg, ed. Babinger, p. 73), Sīnūb (ʿĀs̲h̲i̊ḳ Pas̲h̲a Zāde, and, following him, a…

, name of three Turkish Grand Viziers. 1) Čendereli Ḵh̲alīl Pas̲h̲a in the reign of Murād II, vide čendereli. 2) Ḳaiṣarīyeli Ḵh̲alīl Pas̲h̲a, Grand Vizier under Aḥmad I and Murād IV. He was an Armenian by birth, born in a village called Ruswān in the neighbourhood of Ḳaiṣarīya (Münad̲j̲d̲j̲im Bas̲h̲i̊; the statement of the Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, ii. 286, that he came from Marʿas̲h̲ is incorrect). The date of his birth is not given but must be about 1560. Having been educated at court as Ič Og̲h̲lan, he entered the corps of the falconers and became dog̲h̲and̲j̲i̊ bas̲h̲i̊, in which capacit…

, Turkish corsair and seacaptain during the reign of Bāyazīd II. In his youth he had been given as a present to the Sulṭān by the Ḳapudan Pas̲h̲a Sinān, after which he was brought up as a page at the court. He began his career as a chief of ʿazabs, then took to the Mediterranean and captured in 892/1487 a Maltese Prince ( Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, iv., 78). In 896/1490, by order of Bāyazīd, he raided the Spanish coast in order to support the last Nasrid of Granada Mulay Ḥasan, who, in his critical situation had invoked the Sulṭān’s aid. This expedition is only recorded by Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ḵh̲alīfa in his Taḳw…

, in Turkish Aya Stefanos, a little town on the sea of Marmora, twelve miles west of Constantinople. It probably takes its name from an old church (according to von Hammer) but it is not certain whether San Stefano is the ancient Hagios Stephanos, which was one of the places which Meḥemmed the Conqueror occupied before the investment of Constantinople (Ducas, ed. Bekker, Bonn 1834, p. 258, speaks of the πύργια τοῦ άγίου ΣτεΦάνου σὺν πολέμῳ). The Crusaders landed in its neighbourhood on June 23, …

, a site in ʿIrāḳ, consisting of a number of artificial mounds, covering an extent of 4—5 miles. It is situated on the eastern side of the S̲h̲aṭṭ al-Ḥaiy, which links the Tigris to the Euphrates, at 8—10 hours from Nāṣirīya. Here the French consul in Baṣra, Ernest de Sarzec, discovered in 1877 archæological remains. Under his guidance excavations were begun in 1880, as a result of which the site proved to be that of the Sumerian town of Lagas̲h̲ or Sirpurla. The greater part of the material exc…

, the name of two Turkish grandviziers. 1. The Bosnian Ḵh̲usraw Pas̲h̲a, grandvizier under Murād IV. Brought up in the imperial palace, he held the offices of Siliḥdār and of Ag̲h̲a of the Janissaries (from 1033/1624) and later in Rad̲j̲ab 1036 (March—April 1627) he received the rank of Wezīr-i Ḳubbe-nis̲h̲in. In November 1627 after the failure of the grand vizier Ḵh̲alīl Pas̲h̲a [q. v.] to subdue the rebel Abāza Pas̲h̲a at Erzerūm, a council called by the Sulṭān decided, on the proposal of the S̲h̲aik̲h̲ al-Islām Yaḥyā Efendi, to depose Ḵh̲al…

, grand vizier under Maḥmūd I, was born about 1680 at Constantinople. His father was a Janissary. He began his career as a scribe and rose to important posts; in 1739 he played a role in the peace negotiations at Belgrad with Austria. He had been k i aya of the grand vizierate, viz. minister of the interior, when the sulṭān, under influence of his new ḳi̊zlar ag̲h̲asi̊, the so-called Bes̲h̲īr the Younger, dismissed his predecessor Ḥasan Pas̲h̲a and called him to the grand vizierate (August 1746). The twelve months of his period of office were not filled with wa…

Ād̲h̲ar, a Persian poet and biographer of the xviiith century. He was born in Iṣfahān on the 20th Rabīʿ I, 1123 (June 7, 1711) and spent his youth at Ḳūm and later at S̲h̲īrāz, where his father lived while governor of Lāristān and the coast of Fārs under Nādir S̲h̲āh. After the death of his father, he made the pilgrimage to Mecca and travelled in Persia, finally settling in Iṣfahān in the service of Nādir’s successors. He latterly adopted a life of seclusion and put himself under the spiritual direction of Mīr Saiyid ʿAlī Mus̲h̲tāḳ. He died in 1781. Luṭf ʿAlī Beg is best known for the collect…

, sixth ruler of the Ottoman Empire, was born in 806 (1403—1404) and ascended the throne in May 1421, when he arrived in Adrianople some days after his father Muḥammed I’s death; his decease had been kept secret on the advice of the vizier ʿIwaḍ Pas̲h̲a until the new sulṭān’s arrival. As crown prince he had resided at Mag̲h̲nisa, and he had taken part in the suppression of the revolt of Simawna Og̲h̲lu Badr al-Dīn. Immediately after his accession he had to face the pretender known in Turkish his…

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(in European sources often Mehemed Ali or Mehemet Ali) was the well-known powerful viceroy of Egypt during the years 1805-1849 (which period comprises the entire reign of Sulṭān Maḥmūd II q. v.); and the founder of the khedivial, later royal dynasty of Egypt. Seen in the light of history his life-work fully entitles him to the epithet of “the Founder of Modern Egypt”. Muḥammad ʿAlī was born in 1769, possibly of Albanian extraction, in the town of Ḳawāla [q. v.] in…

The present article is intended to deal with the Muḥammadan geographical literature and, as such, is an attempt to fill a gap that was described as a serious omission in the…

, in the terminology of Turkish mystics, has two meanings: 1. a member of a ṭarīḳa, who accompanies a neophyte of the order during his initiation, as a spiritual interpreter. When a murīd is initiated in the Bektās̲h̲ī ṭarīḳa, he is led by two terd̲j̲umāns into the presence of the S̲h̲aik̲h̲ and eleven other persons representing the eleven imāms. During the ceremony the terd̲j̲umāns guide him and say for him the formulas he has to recite (cf. J. P. Brown, The Darvishes or Oriental ¶ S…

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, S̲h̲ams al-Dīn, Sāmī Bey Frās̲h̲erī, a Turkish author and lexicographer,born at Frās̲h̲er in Albania on June 1, 1850, of an old Muslim Albanian family whose ancestors are said to have been granted this place as a fief by Sulṭān Meḥmed II. He was educated in the Greek lycée at Janina, at the same time receiving instruction from private tutors in Turkish, Persian and Arabic He then came to Constantinople, where he devoted himself to journalism and founded the daily paper Ṣabāḥ about 1875. He began his literary career about the same time and attached himself to the new school…

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, a little town, capital of a ḳaḍā of the same name in the sand̲j̲aḳ of Ertogrul, belonging to the wilāyet of Ḵh̲udāwendigiār in Asia Minor. It lies to the south of Saḳariya between Lefke and Eski S̲h̲ehir and is a day’s journey from each of these places ( Ḏj̲ihān-numā). Sögüd lies at the mouth of a mountain gorge, very deep and very narrow, and is built in an amphitheatre. The country round the town forms part of the fertile region which forms the transition between the Central Plain of Anatolia on the ¶ south and the lands on either side of the lower course of the Saḳariya to the nort…

(p.), derived from Ḵh̲udāwend, signifying master, lord, prince, and often used in literature to denote God. In the history of the Ottoman Empire this word was: 1) the surname of the Sulṭān Murād I (1360— 1389, q. v.) and 2) the name of the sand̲j̲aḳ and later of the wilāyet of which Brūsa was the capital. …

(a.), name of a corps of guards, who were especially attached to the person of the Ottoman Sulṭān in the ancient Turkish court. The name is a…

, the twenty-sixth ruler of the Ottoman Empire, was one of the younger sons of Aḥmad III and was born on Ṣafar 14, 1129 = January 28, 1717 ( Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿot̲h̲mānī, i. 80). When he succeeded to the throne, after ʿOt̲h̲rmān III’s death on October 30, 1757, his much more popular brother and heir to the throne, Muḥammad, had recently died, in December 1756. Turkey enjoyed at that time, since the peace of Belgrad of 1739, a period of peace with her neighbours. Since December 1756 the very able Rāg̲h̲ib Pas̲h̲a [q. v.] was grand …

, twenty-ninth sulṭān of the Ottoman Empire, was a son of ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd I and was born on S̲h̲aʿbān 26, 1193 = Sept. 19,1778 (Meḥmed T̲h̲üreiyā, Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, i. 81). When the anti-reform party, headed by the ḳāʾim-maḳām Mūsā Pas̲h̲a and the muftī, and supported by the Janissaries and the auxiliary troops of the Yamaḳs had dethroned Selīm III [q. v.] on May 29,1807, Muṣṭafā was proclaimed sulṭān. Immediately afterwards, the unpopular niẓām-i d̲j̲edīd corps was dissolved and Ḳabaḳd̲j̲i Og̲h̲lu, the leader of the Yamaḳs, was made commander of the B…

, the word used in western Turkish for village. It is the form in which Turkish has borrowed the Persian gūy (cf. Bittner, Der Einfluss des Arabischen und Persischen auf das Türkische, S.B. Ak. Wien, cxlii., N°. 3, p. 103) or perhaps more correctly kūy (Vullers, Lexicon; Burhān-i Ḳātiʿ; p. 759) meaning originally path, street. In the geographical nomenclature of the Ottoman empire we find many place-names compounded with kiöy, like Bog̲h̲āz Kiöy, Ermeni Kiöy, etc. It seems that these names are not found before the end of the Seld̲j̲ūḳ period. Kiöy in the sense of an open village is opposed to ḳa…

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(a.-t.) (Turkish pronounciation: Selamli̊ḳ), 1) Reception-room in Turkish houses of the upper classes, derived from salām, greeting, welcome. In the general plan of this type of house ( ḳonaḳ) there is an ante-room or court behind the main door, at one side of which a stair-case leads up to the selamli̊ḳ, mā-bain [q. v.] and to the corridor ( sofa), which together form the part of the house allotted to the males. On the other side of the court is the entrance to the harem [q.v.]; there also is the swivel-box ( dolab) through which the women communicate with the harem kitchen. Al-though Selamli̊ḳ originally meant only the room in which the guests are welcomed, the word has come to receive the wider general meaning of the whole of the men’s apartments as opposed to the harem or harcmlik. It thus coincides more or less with the ἀνδρών or ἀνδρονĩτιΣ of the Greeks. Barbier de Meynard, …

, a dynasty of rulers of Egypt and Syria. a. Period from 1250 to 1517. The history of this dynasty is dealt with under the separate rulers; the general questions of art, religion and economics of their time are also dealt with in these articles and notably in Becker’s article …

, grand vizier under Sulṭān Ibrāhīm, was born about 1600 as son of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Bey, son of the former grand vizier Aḥmad Pas̲h̲a (under Murād III), and by his mother a grandson of a princess of the imperial house, whence his surname Sulṭān Zāde. After having been …

, grand vizier in the reign of the Ottoman Sulṭān Muḥammad II, often called Welī Maḥmūd Pas̲h̲a. He was born in Alad̲j̲a Ḥiṣar (Krug̲h̲ewatz) in Serbia, of Christian parents; according to Chalcocondylas, his father was Greek and his mother Serbian. Taken in his youth to Adrianople, he was brought up at the court of Murād II, and began his public career on the occasion of the accession of Muḥammad II in 1451. Soon afterwards he became Beglerbeg of Rūm-ili; according to the historian Ramaḍān Zāde Meḥmed (Küčük Nis̲h̲ānd̲j̲ī) he had been also …

, a small volcanic island in the Mediterranean Sea between Sicily and Tunis (60 miles south of Cape Gtanitola and 45 miles east of Cape Bon [Ras Addar]; area 40 sq. miles), now called Fantellaria. The name Ḳawṣara (variously written in the MSS.) goes back to the classical Cossyra (cf. Pauly-Wissowa’s Realenzyklopädie der klass. Altertumswiss., xi. 1503). The island, famous for its antiquities (cf. Orsi, Pantellaria in Monumenti dei Lincei, 1899, ix. 450—539), was already important in ancient times for intercourse between Sicily and the African coast and played an…

, or in the official style, Talk̲h̲īṣī, was the individual appointed to prepare the précis called talk̲h̲īṣ [q. v.] and to take it to the palace where it was handed over to the chief of the eunuchs. The Talk̲h̲īṣd̲j̲i was therefore an official of the grand vizier’s department; in addition to preparing the talk̲h̲īṣ, he took part in several official ceremonies. The talk̲h̲īṣd̲j̲i of the S̲h̲aik̲h̲ al-Islām was not — at least in the later period — in direct communication with the palace; documents presented by him had to pass first of all through th…

, Turkish grand vizier under Aḥmad I, was a Croatian by birth and was born about 1520. He served the empire as military commander and later as wālī in different provinces (Egypt, Yaman, Anatolia) and was made prisoner by the Persians in the battle of Tabrīz (Sept. 1585), where Čig̲h̲āle’s army was defeated. In 1601 he was pas̲h̲a of Budin and in 1603 commander-in-chief on the Hungarian front. In these posts he repeatedly conducted for the Porte peace negotiations with Austria. He was the chief negotiator of the peace of Z…

, a town in Persia, on the main road from Media to Ḵh̲urāsān, situated in the old province of Kumis (Comisene; cf. Marquart, Êrânšahr, p. 71), between Ṭihrān (in the middle ages Raiy) and Dāmg̲h̲ān, at the foot of the Alburz mountain and on the border of the great Kawlr. The form Simnān is most frequently found (e. g. Yāḳūt); the modern pronunciation is rather Semnun. The foundation of the town is ascribed to Taḥmūrat̲h̲ (al-Ḳazwīnī), and it is probably of considerable antiquity, although it is not mentioned in the so…

, the name of the leader of a religious movement in Ḵh̲urāsān, directed against the ʿAbbāsids. The rising began in 150 (767) and spread rapidly in the districts of Herāt, Bādg̲h̲īs, Gand̲j̲-Rustāḳ and Sid̲j̲istān; the sources say that it had 300,000 adherents. The first opposition it met with was at Marw al-Rūd̲h̲ but the rebels killed the Arab leader al-Ad̲j̲t̲h̲am with a number of his officers. On hearing this, the caliph al-Manṣūr sent his general Ḵh̲āzim b. Ḵh̲uzaima to his son al-Mahdī at Nīsābūr and the latter ordered Ḵh̲āzim to attack the rebels with 20,000 men. ¶ After several chec…

, the twenty-second Ottoman sultan (1106-15/1695-1703), was a son of Meḥemmed IV [ q.v.]. Born in 1664, he succeeded to his uncle Aḥmed II on D̲j̲umādā II 1106/6 February 1695, at a time when the empire was at war with Austria, Poland, Russia and Venice. The new sultan in a remarkable k̲h̲aṭṭ-i s̲h̲erīf proclaimed a Holy War and carried out, against ¶ the decision of the Dīwān , his desire to take part in the campaign against Austria. Before his departure a mutiny of the Janissaries had cost the grand vizier Defterdār ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a his life…

, the Turkish word for “black” or “dark colour” in general. It is commonly used with this meaning as the first component of geographical names e.g., Ḳarā Āmid (on account of the black basalt of which this fortress is built), Ḳarā Dag̲h̲ (on account of its dark forests), etc. Besides Ḳarā we find in place names the diminutive form Ḳarad̲j̲a. In personal names, ḳarā may refer to the black or dark brown colour of hair or to a dark complexion. It has, however, at the same time the meaning “strong, powerful”, and should be interpreted in th…

, the biggest town of the region of Mesopotamia (44° 25′ E., 35° 25′ N.,) bounded by the Little Zab in the north-west, the D̲j̲abal Ḥamrīn in the south-west, the Diyālā in the south-east and the mountain chains of the Zagros in the north-east. It is identified by some (e.g. C. J. Gadd in Rev. d’Assyr. et d’Arch . Or., xxiii (1926), 64, and by Sidney Smith) as the site of the ancient city of Arrapḫa, and so Kirkūk participated in the revolt of the son of Shalmaneser II (850-824 B.C.) against his ageing father; again it rose up in the reign of Ashur Dan I…

, a small town in southern ʿIrāḳ, on the right bank of the Euphrates (lat. 30° 53′ N., long. 46° 28′ E.). It lies some 40 km/25 miles to the south-east of al-Nāṣiriyya [ q.v.] and at the western end of the K̲h̲awr al-Ḥammār lake and marshlands region, about 160 km/100 miles as the crow flies from Baṣra. The town is surrounded by date-groves extending along the river bank, but the marshy country, that extends into Baṣra, makes the air very unhealthy. Sūḳ al-S̲h̲uyūk̲h̲ was founded in the first half of the 18th century as a market-place ( sūḳ) of the confederation of the Muntafiḳ [ q.v.] Arabs; 4 hour…

, grand vizier under Aḥmad I. He was a Bosnian by origin and a relation of Meḥmed Soḳollu Pas̲h̲a. The year of this birth is not given. After having had higher education ¶ in the palace, he was mīr-āk̲h̲ūr , and became in 1003/1595 ag̲h̲a of the Janissaries. In the next year he took part in the Austrian wars as beglerbegi of Rūmili and was commander of Esztergom (Gran, Turkish: Usturg̲h̲on) when this town capitulated to the Austrian army in Muḥarram 1004/September 1595. During the following years, Lala Meḥmed was several times ser-ʿasker in Hungary and when, in Ṣa…

(Ottoman orthography Saḳārya or Ṣaḳārya, modern Turkish Sakarya), a river in Turkey. It rises near Bayāt in the northeast of Āfyūn Ḳara Hiṣār. In its eastward course it enters the wilāyet or il of Ankara, through which it runs to a point above Čaḳmaḳ after receiving on its left bank the Sayyid G̲h̲āzī Ṣū and several other tributaries on the same side. It then turns northwards describing a curve round Siwri Ḥiṣār. Here it receives on the right bank the Engürü Sūyu from Ankara and near this confluence the Porsuk on the opposite …

, twenty-fifth sultan of the Ottoman empire (regn. 1168-71/1754-7) and son of Muṣṭafā II, succeeded his brother Maḥmūd I on 14 December 1754. He was born on 2 January 1699 ( Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿot̲h̲mānī, i, 56) and had therefore reached an advanced age when he was called to the throne. No events of political importance took place in his reign. The period of peace which had begun with the peace of Belgrade in 1739 continued; at home only a series of seditious outbreaks in the frontier provinces indicated the weakness of the empire. In the absence of any outstanding personality, the sultan was able to ¶ r…

(popular pronunciation Tikrīt , cf. Yāḳūt), a town of ʿIrāḳ on the right bank of the Tigris to the north of Sāmarrāʾ 100 miles from Bag̲h̲dād divertly, and 143 by river, and at the foot of the range of the D̲j̲abal Ḥamrīn (lat. 34° 36′ N., long. 43° 41′ E., altitude 110 m/375 feet). Geographically, this is the northern frontier district of ʿIrāḳ. The land is still somewhat undulating; the old town was built on a group of hills, on on…

(a.), a word which is originally an abstract noun meaning “power, authority”, but which by the 4th/10th century often passes to the meaning “holder of power, authority”. It could then be used for provincial and even quite petty rulers who had assumed de facto power alongside the caliph, but in the 5th/11th century was especially used by the dominant power in the central lands of the former caliphate, the Great Sald̲j̲ūḳs [see sald̲j̲ūḳids. II, III.l], who initially overshadowed the ʿAbbāsids of Bag̲h̲dād. In the Perso-Turkish and Indo-Muslim worlds especially, the feminine form sulṭāna…

, the name of a group of Kākāʾīs or Ahl-i Ḥaḳḳ [ q.v.] living in northern ʿIrāḳ, in a group of six villages, four on the right bank of the Great Zab and two on its left one, not far from its confluence with the Tigris and 45 km/28 miles to the south-southeast of Mawṣil. The principal village, where the chief lives, is called Wardak, and lies on the right bank; the largest village on the left bank is Sufayya. The Ṣārlīs, like the other sects found in northern ʿIrāḳ (Yazīdīs, S̲h̲abaks, Bād̲j̲ūrān), are very uncommunicative with regard to their belief and religious practices,…

, the name of part of the sultan’s bodyguard in the old Ottoman military organisation. It comprised four infantry companies or ortas of the Janissaries [see yeñi čeri ], and these were originally ¶ archers ( ṣolaḳ “left-handed”, presumably because they carried their bows in the left hand); they comprised ortas 60-63. Each orta had 100 men and was commanded by a ṣolaḳ bas̲h̲i̊ , assisted by two lieutenants ( rikāb ṣolag̲h̲i̊ ). The ṣolaḳs were used exclusively as bodyguards, together with the smaller (150 men) od̲j̲aḳ of the peyks (“messengers”) under the peyk bas̲h̲i̊ …

Derwīs̲h̲ Aḥmed Dede b. Luṭf Allāh (?-1113/?-1702), Turkish scholar, Ṣūfī poet and, above all, historian, being the author of a celebrated and important general history in Arabic, the D̲j̲āmiʿ al-duwal . His father Luṭf Allāh was a native of Eregli near Ḳonya. He was born in Selānik, in the first half of the 12th/18th century, received a scholarly education and served in his youth for fifteen years in the Mewlewī-k̲h̲āne of Ḳāsi̊m Pas̲h̲a under S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ K̲h̲alīl Dede ( Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿot̲h̲mānī , ii, 287). Afterwards he studied astronomy and astrology and became court astrologer ( müned̲j…

, the twenty-sixth sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1171-87/1757-74), was one of the younger sons of Aḥmed III [ q.v.] and was born on 14 Ṣafar 1129/28 January 1717 ( Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿot̲h̲mānī , i, 80). When he succeeded to the throne, after ʿOt̲h̲mān III’s [ q.v.] death, on 16 Ṣafar 1171/30 October 1757, his much more popular brother and heir to the throne, Meḥemmed, had recently died, in Rabīʿ I 1170/December 1756. Turkey enjoyed at that time, since the peace of Belgrade of 1739, a period of peace with her neighbours. Since December 1756 the very able Rāg̲h̲ib Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.] was grand vizier and …

(a.), the title of governors of the provinces of Egypt, called mudīriyya . The use of the word mudīr in this meaning is no doubt of Turkish origin. The office was created by Muḥammad ʿAlī, when, shortly after 1813, he reorganised the administrative structure of Egypt, instituting seven mudīriyyas; this number has been changed several times. The chief task of the mudīr is the controlling of the industrial and agricultural administration and of the irrigation, as executed by his subordinates, viz. the maʾmūr , who administers a markaz , and the nāẓir who controls the ḳism …

, also written Sifri Ḥiṣār , i.e. strong fortress (see Aḥmed Wefīḳ, Lehd̲j̲e-yi ʿOt̲h̲mānī , 459), the early Turkish and Ottoman name of two small towns in northwestern and western Anatolia respectively. 1. The more important one is the modern Turkish Sivrihisar, in the modern il or province of Eskişehir. It lies on the Eskişehir-Ankara road roughly equidistant from each, south of the course of the Porsuk river and north of the upper course of the Saḳarya [ q.v.] (lat. 39° 29′ N., long. 31° 32′ E., altitude 1,050 m/3,440 feet). …

, modern Turkish Muş, a town and a province of eastern Anatolia lying to the west of Lake Van and Ak̲h̲lāṭ [ q.v.] or K̲h̲ilāṭ (modern Ahlat). The town lies in lat. 38° 44′ N. and long. 41° 30′ E. at an altitude of 1290 m/4,200 feet in the foothills of the valley which carries the Murad Su river—a fertile plain on which wheat, tobacco and vines have long been grown—and which in recent years has borne the railway branch from Elâziğ [see maʿmūrat al-ʿazīz ] eastwards to Tatvan on the shores of Lake Van. In the pre-Islamic period, it was the principal town of the Armenian district of Taraun (Hübschmann, ¶ Id…

b. Āḳā K̲h̲ān , Persian anthologist and poet, who is also known by his penname Ād̲h̲ar which he adopted after having used the names Wālih and Nak̲h̲at previously. He was descended from a prominent Turcoman family belonging to the Begdīlī tribe of Syria (Begdīlī-i S̲h̲āmlū) which had joined the Ḳi̊zi̊lbās̲h̲ movement [ q.v.] in the 9th/15th century. Afterwards, the family settled down in Iṣfahān. Many of his relatives served the later Ṣafawids and Nādir S̲h̲āh as administrators and diplomats. Luṭf ʿAlī Beg was born on Saturday 20 Rabīʿ II 1134/7 F…

, the name of a Turkish dynasty, ultimately of Og̲h̲uz origin [see g̲h̲uzz ], whose name appears in European sources as ottomans (Eng.), ottomanes (Fr.), osmanen (Ger.), etc. I. political and dynastic history 1. General survey and chronology of the dynasty The Ottoman empire was the territorially most extensive and most enduring Islamic state since the break-up of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate and the greatest one to be founded by Turkish-speaking peoples. It arose in the Islamic world after the devastations over much of the eastern and central lands of the Dār al-Islām …

or ʿAlemdār , Ottoman Turkish grand vizier in 1808, was the son of a wealthy Janissary at Rusčuḳ, born about 1750. He distinguished himself in the war with Russia under Muṣṭafā III, and acquired in these years the surname of bayraḳdār “standard-bearer”. After the war he lived on his estates near Rusčuḳ, and acquired the semi-official position of aʿyān [ q.v.] of Hezārgrād and later of Rusčuḳ. With other aʿyans he took part in an action against the government at Edirne, but became finally a reliable supporter of the government. Having already received the honorary offices of ḳapi̊d̲j̲i̊ bas̲…

, modern Turkish Söğüt , a small town of northwestern Anatolia, in the classical Bithynia, now in the modern Turkish il or province of Bilecik [see biled̲j̲ik ] (lat. 40° 02′ N., long. 30° 10′ E., altitude 650 m/2,132 feet). In Ottoman times it came within the wilāyet of Ḵh̲udāwendigār or Bursa [ q.vv.]. It lies to the south of the Saḳarya river [ q.v.] between Lefke and Eskişehir, and is a day’s journey from each of these places ( Ḏj̲ihān-nümā ). Sögüd lies at the mouth of a mountain gorge, very deep and very narrow, and is built in an amphitheatre. Th…

, Sinope , modern Turkish Sin op, a town and seaport on the north coast of Asia Minor, in the classical Paphlagonia, between the mouths of the Saḳarya [ q.v.] and the Ḳi̊zi̊l I̊rmaḳ [ q.v.] and about equidistant from the ports of Ṣamsūn and Ineboli, 120 km/75 miles to the north-east of Ḳasṭamūnī [ q.v.] (lat. 42° 05′ N., long. 35° 09′ E.). It’is the celebrated Σινώπη of the ancients and has retained this name. Muslim authors know it by the name of Sanūb (Abu ’l-Fidāʾ, 392, and Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī, Masālik al-abṣār , ed. Quatremère, in NE, xiii, 361), Ṣanūb (Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, ii, 348), Sināb (…

(t.), an ancient title in Turkish tribal organisation meaning “commander of the army, troops”. The first word was originally sü , with front vowel; no proof has as yet been adduced for ¶ the suggestion that the word was originally a loan from Chinese (see Sir Gerard Clauson, An etymological dict. of pre-thirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 781). Sü appears frequently in the Ork̲h̲on [ q.v.] inscriptions and probably in the Yenisei ones also. In the former, we find the phrase sü sülemek “to make a military expedition”, and the title sü bas̲h̲i̊ also occurs (see Talât Tekin, A grammar of Orkh…

, the word used in western Turkish (e.g. in Ottoman and Crimean Tatar cf. Radloff, Versuch eines Wörterbuches der Türk-Dialecte , ii, 1216) for village. It is the form in which Turkish has borrowed the Persian gūy (cf. Bittner, Der Einfluss des Arabischen und Persischen auf das Türkische , in SB Ak . Wien , cxlii, No. 3, 103), or perhaps more correctly kūy (Vullers, Lexicon; Burhān-i ḳāṭiʿ , 759) meaning originally path, street. In the toponomastic of the Ottoman empire we find many placenames compounded with köy , like Bog̲h̲az Köy, Ermeni Köy, etc. It seems …

, Mad̲j̲d al-Dīn Abu ’l-Ḥasan , a Persian poet of the second half of the 4th/10th century. In some later sources his kunya is given as Abū Isḥāḳ, but the form given above can be found already in an early source like the Čahār makāla . The Dumyat al-ḳaṣr by al-Bāk̲h̲arzī contains a reference to the “solitary ascetic” ( al-mud̲j̲tahid al-muḳīm bi-nafsihi ) Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Muḥammad al-Kisāʾī of Marw who might very well be identical with this poet (cf. A. Ates, giriş to his edition of Kitāb Tarcumān al-balāġa , 97 f.). The pen name Kisāʾī would, according to ʿAw…

, Arabised form Marzubān , “warden of the march”, “markgrave”, from Av. marəza and M. Parth. mrz “frontier”, plus pat “protector”. The MP form marzpān suggests a north Iranian origin. It began to be used as the title of a military governor of a frontier province in the Sāsānid empire in the 4th or 5th centuries A.D. when marz , marzpan , and marzpanutʿin (marzpānate) appear as loan words in Armenian, and marzbanā as a loan word in Syriac. The NP form marzbān , marzvān or marzabān was Arabised as marzubān (pl. marāziba , marāzib ), possibly as early as the 6th century A.D. Arabic also formed a verb marz…

, the river Nile. The Nile is one of the large rivers (length ca. 6,648 km./4,132 miles) which from the beginning have belonged to the territory of Islam, and the valleys and deltas of which have favoured the development of an autonomous cultural centre in Islamic civilisation. In the case of the Nile, this centre has influenced at different times the cultural and political events in the Islamic world. Thus the Nile has, during the Islamic period, continued to play the same part as it did during the centuries that preceded the coming of Islam. The name al-Nīl or, very often, Nīl Miṣr, goe…

(824-48, 850-5/1421-44, 1446-51), sixth ruler of the Ottoman Empire, was born in 806 (1403-4) and ascended the throne in D̲j̲umādā I 824/May 1421, when he arrived in Edirne some days after his father Meḥemmed I’s death; his decease had been kept secret on the advice of the vizier ʿIwaḍ Pas̲h̲a until the new sultan’s arrival. As crown prince he had resided at Mag̲h̲nisa, and he had taken part in the suppression of the revolt of Simawna-Og̲h̲lu Bedr al-Dīn [ q.v.]. Immediately after his accession he had to face the pretender known in Turkish history as Düzme Muṣṭafā [ q.v.] and his ally D̲j̲un…

, a town in central Syria in the district of Orontes (Nahr al-ʿĀṣī), about 25 miles south-east of Ḥamāt and 35 miles north-east of Ḥimṣ (for the town’s exact situation, see Kiepert’s map in M. von Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf , Berlin 1899, i. 124 ff., and ii, 401; National Geographic Atlas of the World , 5th ed., Washington D.C. 1981, 178-9). Salamiyya lies in a fertile plain 1,500 feet above sea level, south of the D̲j̲abal al-Aʿlā and on the margin of the Syrian steppe. The older and more correct pronunciation…

, the desert region that lies west of Kūfa along the alluvial plain of the Euphrates. It is higher than the low-lying ground by the river and forms the transition to the central Arabian plateau. According to the authorities quoted by Yāḳūt, Buldān , iii, 359, al-ṭaff means an area raised above the surrounding country or fringe, edge, bank; the name is not found after the 13th century. The district contains a number of springs, the waters of which run ¶ southwest (cf. Ibn al-Faḳīh, 187). The best known of these wells was al-ʿUd̲h̲ayr. From its geographical position al-Ṭaff w…

, Muḥammad (1823-87), Egyptian statesman in the reigns of the Khedives Ismāʿīl and Tawfīk. He was of Turkish origin and was born in Cairo, where his father was then acting as ḳāḍī ’l-ḳuḍāt sent by the sultan. When some ten years later the family was again temporarily in Cairo, Muḥammad ʿAlī [ q.v.] had the boy sent to the military school recently founded by him. Henceforth, his whole career was to be spent in the Egyptian service. S̲h̲arīf was a member of the “Egyptian mission” sent to Paris for higher education which included the future Khedives…

, or in the official style, Telk̲h̲īṣī , was the individual of the Ottoman Turkish administration appointed to prepare the précis called telk̲h̲īṣ [ q.v.] and to take it to the palace, where it was handed over to the chief of the eunuchs. The telk̲h̲īṣd̲j̲i was therefore an official of the Grand Vizier’s department; in addition to preparing the telk̲h̲īṣ, he took part in several official ceremonies. The telk̲h̲īṣd̲j̲i of the S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām was not—at least in the later period—in direct communication with the palace; documents presented by him had to pass first …

(t.), dans l’organisation tribale turque, ancien titre désignant le «commandant de l’armée, des troupes». Le premier terme avait d’abord la forme sü, avec voyelle d’avant. Rien ne confirme que le mot ait été primitivement un emprunt au chinois (voir Sir Gérard Clauson, An etymological dict. of the pre-thirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 781). Sü apparaît fréquemment dans les inscriptions de l’Ork̲h̲on [ q.v.], et probablement aussi dans celles du Ienisseï. Dans les premières, on trouve l’expression sü sülemek «faire une expédition militaire», et le titre de sü bas̲h̲i̊ existe…

, nom d’une dynastie turque, d’origine og̲h̲uze [voir G̲h̲uzz], qui figure dans les sources européennes sous les formes Ottomans (angl. et fr.), Osmanlis (fr.), Osmanen (all.), etc. ¶ I. L’histoire politique et dynastique. II. L’histoire sociale et économique. III. La littérature. IV. La vie religieuse. V. L’architecture. VI. Les tapis et étoffes. VII. La céramique, le travail des métaux et les arts mineurs. VIII. La peinture. IX. La numismatique. I. L’histoire politique et dynastique, —1. Vue générale et chronologie de la dynastie. L’empire ottoman a été l’État islamique le …

(a.), titre honorifique utilisé dans le monde musulman jusqu’au début du XXe siècle, et attribué essentiellement à des dignitaires religieux. 1. Histoire primitive du terme. Le titre apparut tout d’abord dans le Ḵh̲urāsān à la fin du IVe/Xe siècle. Alors que les titres honorifiques composés avec le mot Islām (comme ʿIzz-, Ḏj̲alāl-, et Sayf al-Islām), étaient portés par des personnes détentrices du pouvoir séculier (notamment les vizirs des Fāṭimides, cf. van Berchem dans ZDPV, XVI [1983], 101), le titre de S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām a toujours été réservé aux ʿulamāʾ et aux mystiques, co…

ou ʿĀlemdār, grand-vizir turc (1808), né à Rusčuḳ vers 1750. Fils d’un riche Janissaire, il se distingua dans la guerre contre la Russie sous Muṣṭafā III [ q.v.] et acquit à cette époque le surnom de bayraḳdār «porteétendard». Après la guerre, il vécut dans ses propriétés, près de Rusčuḳ et obtint la fonction semiofficielle d’ aʿyān [ q.v.] de Hezārgrād, puis de Rusčuḳ. Avec d’autres aʿyans, il prit part à l’action anti-gouvernementale à Edirne, mais il devint à la fin un appui digne de confiance du gouvernement. Ayant déjà reçu les fonctions honorifiques de ḳapi̊d̲j̲i̊ bas̲h̲i̊ et de mīr ak…

(t.), nom d’un corps de gardes, qui fut spécialement affecté à la personne du sultan ottoman. Ce nom est également appliqué à un membre de cette garde. Leurs services étaient pareils à ceux des čawus̲h̲ [ q.v.]; dépourvus de caractère militaire, ils n’étaient pas seulement employés au service de la cour, mais pouvaient être chargés de plus ou moins importantes missions publiques ou politiques. Comme les čawus̲h̲, les müteferriḳa étaient une garde à cheval. Leur nom apparaît de bonne heure; dans une waḳfiyya de 847/1443, un nommé Ibrāhīm b. Isḥāḳ est cité comme en faisant part…

est la plus grande ville de la région de Mésopotamie (44° 25′ Est, 35° 25′ Nord) limitée par le Petit Zāb au Nord-ouest, le Ḏj̲abal Ḥamrīn au Sud-ouest, le Diyālā au Sud-est et les chaînes du Zagros au Nord-est. Identifiée par certains (par ex. C. J. Gadd, dans Rev. d’Assyr. et d’Archéol. Orient., 1926 et par Sidney Smith) comme le site de l’ancienne cité d’Arrapha, Kirkūk participa à une révolte d’un fils de Salmanasar II (858-824 av. J.-C.) contre son père vieillissant; elle se souleva de nouveau sous le règne d’As̲h̲ur-dan III (771-754 av. J.-…

, Sinope, en Turc moderne Sinop, ville et port de mer sur la côte septentrionale de l’Asie Mineure, dans la Paphlagonie classique, entre les embouchures du Saḳariya [ q.v.] et du Ḳi̊zi̊l İrmaḳ, et environ à distance égale des ports de Ṣamsūn et d’Ineboli, à 124 km au Nord-est de Ḳasṭamūnī [ q.v.]. C’est la célèbre ville de Σινώπη de l’antiquité, dont elle a gardé le nom; les auteurs musulmans la connaissent sous le nom de Sanūb (Abū l-Fidāʾ, 392 et Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī, Masālik al-abṣār, éd. Quatre-mère, dans NE, XIII, 361), Ṣanūb (Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, II, 348), Sināb (Anon. Giese, 34; U…

, vingt-cinquième sultan de l’empire ottoman. Fils de Muṣṭafā II, il succéda à son frère Maḥmūd Ier, le 28 ṣafar 1168/14 décembre 1754. Il était né le 29 d̲j̲umādā II 1110/2 janvier 1699 ( Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, I, 56) et se trouvait donc dans un âge assez avancé lorsqu’il fut appelé au trône. Son règne n’est pas rempli d’importants événements politiques. La période de paix, qui avait commencé avec la paix de Belgrade en 1152/1739, continuait; à l’intérieur seulement une série de séditions dans les régions frontières indiquaient…

, mot turc signifiant «noir» et, d’une façon générale, «de couleur foncée». Il a d’ordinaire ce sens lorsqu’il constitue le premier élément d’un toponyme: par exemple Ḳarā Āmid (à cause des basaltes noirs sur lesquels est construite la forteresse), Ḳarā Dāg̲h̲ (Montagne Noire, à cause des épaisses forêts qui la couvrent). A côté de ḳarā, on trouve aussi le diminutif ḳarad̲j̲a. Dans les noms de personnes, ḳarā peut indiquer la couleur noire ou foncée des cheveux ou la teinte sombre de la peau; mais on emploie aussi ce terme pour marquer la puissance, et c’est d…

, nom turc ottoman d’un petit village de Lydie en Asie Mineure, l’ancien Sardes (αί ΣαρδεῖΣ des auteurs classiques; de là la forme Sard chez Sāmī Bey), capitale du royaume de Lydie, situé sur la rive gauche du Sart Çay (Pactole) un peu au Sud de son embouchure dans le Gediz Çay (Hermus). Dès la basse époque byzantine Sardes avait perdu beaucoup de son importance (comme siège d’un métropolite); elle avait été surpassée par Magnésie (turc Mag̲h̲nīsa) et Philadelphie (Ala S̲h̲ehir [ q.v.]); c’était toutefois encore une viile importante quand, au Ve/XIe siècle, les Turcs Sald̲j̲ūḳides fir…

, vingt-deuxième sultan ottoman, fils de Meḥemmed IV [ q.v.]. Né en 1664, il succéda à son oncle Aḥmed II le 21 d̲j̲umādā II 1106/6 février 1695, à une époque où l’empire était en guerre avec l’Autriche, la Pologne, la Russie et Venise. Le nouveau sultan fit, dans un remarquable k̲h̲aṭṭ-i s̲h̲erīf un appel à la guerre sainte et donna suite, malgré la décision du dīwān, à son désir de prendre part à la campagne contre l’Autriche. Après son départ, une révolte des Janissaires coûta la vie au grand-vizir, le defterdār ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a (24 avril 1695), et la campagne fut dirigée par le nouve…

, vingt-neuvième sultan ottoman, fils de ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd Ier, né le 26 s̲h̲aʿbān 1193/19 septembre 1778 (Meḥmed T̲h̲üreyyā, Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿot̲h̲mānī, I, 81). Le parti anti-réformiste, dirigé par le ḳāʾim-maḳām Mūsā Pas̲h̲a et le muftī et soutenu par les Janissaires et les troupes auxiliaires des Yamaḳs, ayant détrôné Selīm III [ q.v.] le 21 rabīʿ I 1222/29 mai 1807, Muṣṭafā fut proclamé sultan. Immédiatement après, le corps dit niẓām-i d̲j̲edīd [ q.v.] fut dissous, et Ḳabaḳd̲j̲i Og̲h̲lu, le chef des Yamaḳs, fut fait commandant des forteresses du Bosphore. La Turquie é…

, nom d’une communauté de Kākāʾīn ou Ahl-i Ḥaḳḳ [ q.v.] vivant au Nord du ʿIrāḳ dans un ensemble de six villages, quatre sur la rive droite du Grand Zab, et deux sur la rive gauche, non loin de son confluent avec le Tigre et à 45 km au Sud-sud-est de Mawṣil. Le principal village, où résidait le chef, s’appelait Wardak et se trouvait sur la rive droite; sur la rive gauche le plus grand village est Sufayya. Les Ṣārlīs, comme les autres sectes qu’on trouve en Mésopotamie (Yazīdis, S̲h̲abaks, Bād̲j̲ūrān), étaient très peu communicatifs quant à leurs croyances et à leurs prati…

, mot employé en turc occidental (par. ex. en ottoman et en tatar de Crimée; cf. Radloff, Versuch eines Wörterbuches der Türk-Dialecte, II, 1216) pour désigner un village. C’est la forme sous laquelle le turc a emprunté le mot persan guy (voir Bittner, Der Einfluss des Arabischen und Persischen auf das Türkische, dans 5 B. Ak. Wien, CXLII/3, 103) ou peut-être plus correctement kūy (Vullers, Lexicon; Burhān-i ḳāṭiʿ, 759), signifiant à l’origine «allée, rue». Dans la toponymie de l’empire ottoman, on trouve beaucoup de noms de localités composés avec köy, comme Bog̲h̲āz Köy, Ermeni Kö…

(a.), titre porté par les gouverneurs des provinces d’Égypte dites mudīriyya. L’emploi du mot mudīr dans ce sens est sans aucun doute d’origine turque. La fonction a été créée par Muḥammad ʿAlī quand, peu après 1813, il a réorganisé la structure administrative de l’Égypte et institué sept mudīriyyas, nombre qui a été modifié à plusieurs reprises. La principale attribution du mudīr consiste à contrōler l’administration industrielle et agricole et l’irrigation, tâche qui est exécutée par ses subordonnés, le maʾmūr, à la tête d’un markaz, et le nāẓir, chef du ḳism qui est aussi une sub…

(également désigné sous la forme arabisée Marzubān-nāma), ouvrage en prose persane qui contient diverses histoires brèves servant d’exemples moraux; l’une d’entre elles, plus développée, et plusieurs autres moins importantes constituent un cadre qui les relient les unes aux autres. Il existe essentiellement en deux versions écrites dans un persan élégant contenant nombre de vers et d’expressions en arabe. Ces versions ont été établies indépendamment l’une de l’autre, au début du XIIIe siècle de J.-C, sur un original en dialecte du Ṭabaristān, aujourd’hui perdu. La…

, d’après la tradition courante, troisième souverain de l’État ottoman, était le fils d’Ork̲h̲ān et de la noble Byzantine Nīlūfar. Bien que certaines sources ottomanes prétendent connaître l’année de sa naissance (le Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿot̲h̲mānī, I, 74, donne l’année 726/1326), cette date, comme toutes celles que donnent des sources turques se rapportant à cette période, est loin d’être certaine. Le nom de Murād (les sources grecques telles que Phrantzes ont ‘ΑμουράτηΣ, d’où les sources latines récentes ont Amurat̲h̲, tandis que les sources latines d’Italie contemporaines portent Mora…

, ou dans le style officiel, Telk̲h̲īṣī désignait le personnage chargé de composer le résumé, telk̲h̲īs, [ q.v.] et de le porter au palais où il était reçu par le chef des eunuques. Ainsi le telk̲h̲īṣd̲j̲ī était un des fonctionnaires du département du Grand Vizir; outre sa fonction de préparer les telk̲h̲īṣ il figurait encore dans plusieurs cérémonies officielles. Le telk̲h̲īṣd̲j̲ī du S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-islām, au moins à la dernière période, n’entrait plus en rapport direct avec le grand palais; les documents qu’il avait à présenter devaient passer tout d’abord …

, petite ville du ʿIrāḳ méridional, sur la rive droite de l’Euphrate (lat. 30° 53′ N., long. 46° 28′ E.), à quelque 40 km au Sud-est d’al-Nāṣiriyya [ q.v.] et à l’extrémité occidentale de la région de lacs et de marécages du Ḵh̲awr al-Ḥammār, à environ 160 km à vol d’oiseau de Baṣra. La ville est située au milieu de plantations de dattiers qui s’étendent le long du fleuve; la contrée marécageuse qui entoure la ville et qui s’étend jusqu’à Baṣra rend l’air très insalubre. Sūḳ al-S̲h̲uyūk̲h̲ fut fondée dans la première moitié du XVIIIe siècle comme marché ( sūḳ) de la confédération des Arabes M…

, nom d’un des corps de la garde personnelle du sultan dans l’ancienne organisation miitaire ottomane. Il comprenait quatre compagnies d’infanterie, ou ortas des Janissaires [voir Yeñi Čeri]. C’étaient à l’origine des archers ( ṣolaḳ = «gaucher», sans doute parce qu’ils portaient leur arc de la main ¶ gauche); il s’agissait des ortas 60 à 63. Chaque orta comptait cent hommes et était commandé par un ṣolaḳ bas̲h̲i̊ assisté de deux lieutenants ( rikāb ṣolag̲h̲i̊). Les ṣolaḳs étaient employés exclusivement comme gardes du corps, en même temps que l’odjak des peyks (messagers), comptant …

, en turc moderne Sögüt, petite ville d’Anatolie du Nord-ouest, dans l’ancienne Bithynie, actuellement dans l’ il (province) turque de Bilecik [voir Biled̲j̲ik] (lat. 40° 02′ N., long. 30° 10′ E., altitude 650 m). A l’époque ottomane, elle faisait partie du wilāyet de Ḵh̲udāwendigār, ou Bursa [ q.vv.]. Elle est située au Sud de la rivière Saḳarya entre Lefke et Eskişehir et séparée de chacun de ces deux endroits par une journée de marche ( Ḏj̲ihān-nümā). Sögüd se situe à l’entrée d’une gorge de montagne fort profonde et très étroite et s’élève en amphithéâtre; les envi…

, ville en ʿIrāḳ médiéval située dans la région du delta du Tigre et de l’Euphrate, au Nord du Golfe Persique, et renommée comme tête de pont du commerce avec l’Inde et l’Orient. Elle se trouvait à l’Est d’al-Baṣra [ q.v.], sur la rive droite du Tigre et sur le flanc Nord du grand canal appelé Nahr al-Ubulla, qui était la principale artère fluviale d’al-Baṣra vers le Sud-est en direction du Tigre, et puis vers ʿAbbādān et la mer. La longueur qui est généralement donnée pour ce canal est de quatre farsak̲h̲s ou deux barīds (al-Muḳaddasī). On peut identifier al-Ubulla avec la ʿΑπολόγον ‘Εμ…

, région du désert qui s’étend à l’ouest de Kūfa, le long de la plaine alluviale de l’Euphrate. Elle est plus élevée que les plaines riveraines du fleuve et forme la transition vers le plateau central de l’Arabie. Al-Ṭaff signifie, d’après les autorités citées par Yāḳūt Buldān III, 359, un terrain qui s’élève au dessus de son entourage, une bordure, une terrasse; le nom ne se trouve plus après le XIIIe siècle. Le terrain contient un certain nombre de sources dont l’eau coulait vers le Sud-ouest (v. par ex. Ibn al-Faḳīh, 187); la plus connue de ces sources était al…