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, muṣṭafā b. aḥmad b. ʿabd al-mawlā čelebi , one of the most outstanding representatives of Turkish literature of the 16th century. Born at Gallipoli in 948/1541, from the age of 10 he studied under Surūrī, great expert in Persian language and literature, and then under the Arab poet Muḥyi ’l-Dīn. In 965/1557 he presented to the heir-apparent Selīm his work entitled Mihr u-Māh , a step which determined his future career (see Dozy, Cat . cod . or. bibl . Acad . Lugd . Batavae , ii, 128). He became a member of the circle of his fellow-citizen Muṣṭafā, tutor to…

(“the handsome”), (d. 1620) Ottoman Grand Admiral and Grand Vizier. Born at Istanköy (Cos), he was successively bey of Damiette, and beylerbeyi of the Yaman (1602), Tunis, Morea and Cyprus. In November 1617, he succeeded Ḵh̲alīl Pas̲h̲a as ḳapudan-i̊ deryā ; in August 1618, a storm off the Dalmatian Coast caused ¶ the loss of eleven vessels of his fleet; dismissed at the accession of Muṣṭafā I, he again became ḳapudan-i̊ deryā shortly afterwards. On 16 Muḥarram 1029/23 December 1619, he succeeded Öküz Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a as Grand Vizier following intrigues among the int…

, Ottoman Grand Vizier. Born in Dimetoka, he entered the financial administration and was eventually appointed defterdār in 1688; he was dismissed the following year, but in 1103/1691 was again defterdār and wazīr . Successively governor of Cyprus and Tripoli in Syria, he became Grand Vizier on 16 Rad̲j̲ab 1105/ 13 March 1694 in the place of Bozoḳlu Muṣṭafā Pas̲h̲a, and conducted the Hungarian campaign, during which he unsuccessfully besieged Peterwardein. Sulṭān Muṣṭafā II, on his accession, retained ʿAlī…

, family of Turkish origin, of whom several members governed Tripolitania from 1123/1711 to 1251/1835, constituting themselves into a real dynasty. Its founder was Ḳaramānlī Aḥmad Bey, of whose origins scarcely anything is known apart from the fact that he himself or his father or an ancestor came from Anatolia, probably from the town or the region of Ḳaramān, to serve as a soldier in the od̲j̲āḳ of Tripoli; certain authors put forward the view that one of his ancestors may have come to Tripolitania with the corsair Ṭurg̲h̲ūt (Dragut). Th…

, Turkish historian, b. in 1274/1857 at Diyār Bakr, d. at Istanbul 23 December 1923 (1342). An official of the financial administration, he was primarily interested in the history of the Ottoman Empire, and he took advantage of his appointment to different towns to transcribe Arabic and Turkish inscriptions, to study local history and above all to seek out old documents and historical and poetical manuscripts. In this way he built up a library of unpublished and rare manuscripts, which later enriched the National Library of Istanbul. He published the review Taʾrik̲h̲ we-Edebiyyāt …

, a dynasty which reigned in Tunisia from 1705 until 25 July 1957, when the Tunisian republic was proclaimed. The founder of the dynasty was al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī [ q.v.] who came to power in 1705, after the defeat and capture by the Algerians of the Bey Ibrāhīm al-S̲h̲arīf. Proclaimed Bey and later recognized as Beylerbeyi (governor) of the province of Tunisia by the Ottoman Sultan Aḥmed III, Ḥusayn persuaded his Council of military leaders to adopt a system of hereditary succession within his family by primogeniture on the male s…

, Arabic name of Crete, with the variants Aḳrīṭīs̲h̲ (Yāḳūt), Iḳrīṭiya (Ibn Rusta), Iḳrītaṣ ( Ḥudūd al-ʿālam ) (Aḳrīṭa (Yāḳūt, ii, 865) refers to a locality in Asia Minor and has only a fortuitous resemblance with the name of the island of Crete). Geography . The Arabic geographers describe it as one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean (Baḥr al-Rūm [ q.v.]), whose situation they sometimes confuse with that of Cyprus. They give widely varying figures for its area; a circumference of 300 miles (Ibn Rusta) or taking 15 days on foot (Ibn K̲h̲urradād̲h̲bīh; al-Ḥimyarī), 100 farsak̲h̲ …

, non-Ḳurʾānic term which is used to mean on the one hand the duty of every Muslim to “promote good and forbid evil” and, on the other, the function of the person who is effectively entrusted in a town with the application of this rule in the supervision of moral behaviour and more particularly of the markets; this person entrusted with the ḥisba was called the muḥtasib . There seems to exist ¶ no text which states explicitly either the reason for the choice of this term or how the meanings mentioned above have arisen from the idea of “calculation” or “sufficiency” which is expressed by the root. i.—G…

, ḥasan efendi al-sayyid ḥasan b. ḥasan al-ʿaynṭābī , one of the most celebrated poets of the reign of Maḥmūd II, born at ʿAynṭāb in 1180/1766 and died at Constantinople in 1253/ 1837. Of very humble origins, he left his native town in 1780, travelled about Anatolia for ten years and settled in Istanbul, where he studied at the madrasa of Sulṭān Aḥmad; after holding various appointments in the offices of the administration, in 1831 he became professor of Arabic and Persian in the Chancellery of the Sublime Porte. His poetry caused …

b. ʿAlī , Bey of Tunis (1705-35), founder of the Ḥusaynid dynasty. The son of a ¶ Greek renegade recruited into the ranks of the od̲j̲aḳ , Ḥusayn was āg̲h̲ā of the sipāhis at the time of the war between Algeria and Tunisia (1704-5). Proclaimed Bey after the capture of Bey Ibrāhīm by the Algerian troops, Ḥusayn first repulsed the Algerians, then got rid of the Dey, Muḥammad K̲h̲od̲j̲a, who was supported by the army, and finally also of Bey Ibrāhīm after he had been set free. Ḥusayn was recognized by the Ottoman Sultan, who gave him the title of Pas̲h̲a with the rank of Beylerbeyi …

, literally “gate” in Turkish, which by extension means “Ottoman Porte”, that is, the sultan’s palace, and is also used for the grand vizier’s palace and the seat of government. The word ḳapi̊ was used concurrently with the Arabic bāb ( e.g., bāb-i̊ ʿālī [ q.v.]) and the Persian dar/ der ( e.g., der-i devlet, der-i ʿāliye , der-i seʿādet ). It appears, however, that in Ottoman the word ḳapi̊, unlike bāb and der, was rarely used with a non-Turkish epithet or determinative. On the other hand, it is very frequently employed to designate military or civil functions direc…

, (literally, “barley money”), a term used in the Ottoman empire up to the beginning of the 19th century to denote an allowance made to the principal civil, military and religious officers of ¶ state, either in addition to their salary when in office, or as a pension on retirement, or as an indemnity for unemployment. This term does not appear in the historical sources before the 16th century, and corresponds, to begin with, to an indemnity for fodder of animals, paid to those who maintained forces of cavalry or had to look aft…

A term synonymous with atabeg , used not only among the Turks, but also in the Caucasus, Turkistan, and by the Tīmūrids and the Turkish dynasties of India. It was still used in the 19th century by the amīrs of Buk̲h̲ārā and Ḵh̲iva, and the amīr of Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar, Yaʿḳūb Bey, bore the title of atali̊ḳ g̲h̲āzī . (R. Mantran) Bibliography See the article, with a very full bibliography, by M. F. Köprülü in IA, s.v.

(1667-1716), Ottoman Grand Vizier. Born at Sölöz near Nicaea in 1079/1667, he entered the Seraglio of Ahmed II, and filled successively the posts of kātib , rikābdār , čuḳadār and silāḥdār ; he exercised great influence over Sultan Aḥmed III, who came to the throne in 1703, and who made him wazīr and gave him his daughter Fātima in marriage (Rabīʿ I 1121/May 1709); he had a hand in the appointment and dismissal of wazīrs , including Köprülü-zāde Nuʿmān Pas̲h̲a and Balṭad̲j̲i Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a. The Grand Vizier Khod̲j̲a Ibrāhīm Pas̲h̲a was condemned t…

(1201-1275/1786-1859) s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-islām from 1262 to 1270/1845-54, and one of the last representatives of Turkish classical poetry. Descended from a family of high officials (his father, Ibrāhīm ʿIsmet was ḳāḍi ’l-ʿaskar under Selim III), he became molla of Jerusalem (1231/1816), then of Cairo (1236/1820) and Medina (1239-1823); later appointed naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf (1246/1830) and ḳāḍi ’l-ʿaskar of Anatolia (1249/1833), then of Rumelia (1254/1838), he finally became s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-islām, a post which he held for seven years. ʿĀrif Ḥikmet Bey maintained relations…

(Muṣṭafā Kemāl), the founder and first President of the Turkish Republic, was born at Salonica 1881 and died at Istanbul on 10th November 1938. He lost his father, ʿAlī Riḍā, whilst still very young, so that it was his mother, Zübeyde Ḵh̲ānīm, who saw to his education. When twelve years of age, he entered the military preparatory school at Salonica, where one of his teachers made him take the name of Kemāl in addition to Muṣṭafā. In 1895 he entered the Military School of Monastir, then in 1899 t…

, Ottoman Grand Vizier. At first aḳ ag̲h̲asi̊ , then beylerbeyi of Ḳaramān and subsequently of Rumelia, he distinguished himself in the course of a campaign in Wallachia (1485); wazīr in 1486, he defeated the Mamlūks of Egypt at the battle of Āg̲h̲āčāyi̊r in Cilicia (1942), took the fortresses of Coron and Modon (1500), and. was appointed Grand Vizier the following year in succession to Mesīḥ Pas̲h̲a. Dismissed in 1503, he again became Grand Vizier in 1506 and remained in office until his death. He strove to secure the succession of the s̲h̲āh-zāde Aḥmed, second son of Sultan Bāyazīd I…

, “porter”, “guardian” (cf. A. bawwāb , Pers. derbān ), a term which, in the Ottoman empire, designated the guards placed at the main gates of the sultan’s palace in Istanbul: the Bāb-i̊ hümāyūn , Orta ḳapi̊ and Bāb üs-seʿādet . The guards on the first two gates belonged to the same category, while those of the Bab üs-seʿādet , which gave access to the sultan’s private residence and to the harem, ¶ constituted a distinct category, the ḳule ṣofulari̊ , subordinate to the ki̊zlar ag̲h̲asi̊ . The ḳapi̊d̲j̲i̊ are first mentioned in the ḳānūnnāme of Meḥemmed I the Conque…

, the name of two prominent Ottoman figures. 1. Grand Vizier (1663-1733). Born in the Peloponnese of a family originally from Konya, ʿOt̲h̲mān Pas̲h̲a joined the od̲j̲aḳ of the ḳozbekči (body of officials performing various services on the sultan’s behalf), then that of the pandūl ( pandūr , a militia recruited in the Balkans among the free peasants and entrusted with duties of local security). According to von Hammer, he reportedly became beylerbeyi at 24 years of age and was sent to Egypt by Muṣṭafā II; taken prisoner in the open sea off the …

, Ottoman Grand Vizier. Born at Ok̲h̲ri between 1620 and 1622, died at Rhodes 16 Shaʿbān 1104/21 April 1693. Af first imām to various eminent people, then ketk̲h̲udā , he became ag̲h̲a of the Janissaries in. 1101/1689, and later wazīr and ḳāʾim-maḳām of the imperial stirrup. Through the support of the ḳāḍi ’ l-ʿasker Yaḥyā Efendi and the Shayk̲h̲ al-Islām Abū Saʿīdzāde Feyḍ Allāh Efendi, he succeeded Köprülüzāde Muṣṭafā Pas̲h̲a, killed at Szalankamen as Grand Vizier, on 6 Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 1102/30 Augu…