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, a collection of poetry or prose [see ʿarabiyya ; persian literature ; turkish literature ; urdū literature and s̲h̲iʿr ], a register, or an office. Sources differ about linguistic roots. Some ascribe to it a Persian origin from dev , ‘mad’ or ‘devil’, to describe secretaries. Others consider it Arabic from dawwana , to collect or to register, thus meaning a collection of records or sheets. (See Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , i, 90; LA, xvii, 23-4; Ṣūlī, Adab al-kuttāb , 187; Māwardī, al-Aḥkām al-sulṭāniyya , 175; D̲j̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, Wuzarāʾ , ¶ 16-17; cf. Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ ,…

(a.), two terms of mediaeval Islamic finance and land tenure. The first denotes special items consisting of immoveable property selected from booty by the leader [see fayʾ and g̲h̲anīma ], while the second is the term for land which the Imām selects from the conquered territories for the treasury with the consent of those who had a share in the booty (al-Māwardī, al-Aḥkām al-sulṭāniyya , Cairo 1966, 192). In pre-Islamic Arabia the leader was also entitled to one-fourth ( rubʿ ) or onefifth ( k̲h̲ums ) of the booty in addition to the ṣafī . The custom of k̲h̲ums was upheld by the prophet and …

(a.), nationalism. 1. In the Arab world east of the Mag̲h̲rib. The term derives from ḳawm , a term of tribal provenance used to denote a group of people having or claiming a common ancestor, or a tribe descended from a single ancestor. One’s ḳawm is simply one’s people, either genealogically determined or mythologically and folklorishly depicted. In this century, ḳawmiyya refers to the movement of nationalism among the Arabs of the Ottoman dominions in the Fertile Crescent that were conquered by the Allies in the Great War. The use …

(a.) “water”. The present article covers the religio-magical and the Islamic legal aspects of water, together with irrigation techniques, as follows: 1. Hydromancy A a vehicle for the sacred, water has been employed for various techniques of divination, and in particular, for potamonancy (sc. divination by means of the colour of the waters of a river and their ebbing and flowing; cf. FY. Cumont, Études syriennes , Paris 1917, 250 ff., notably on the purification power of the Euphrates, consulted for divinatory reasons); for pegomancy (sc…

, the third ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty [ q.v.], was born on 5 January 1808. He succeeded to the throne in 1834 on the death of his grandfather Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh [ q.v.]. He was the eldest ¶ son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā [ q.v.]. His mother was the daughter of Muḥammad K̲h̲ān Beglarbegi Ḳād̲j̲ār Develu. He had two full brothers, Ḳahramān Mīrzā and Bahman Mīrzā and twenty-three half-brothers. He died on 6 S̲h̲awwāl 1264/4 September 1848 and was buried at Ḳum. His chief wife, the mother of Nāṣir al-Dīn S̲h̲āh [ q.v.], was Malik D̲j̲ahān K̲h̲ānum, whose father was Muḥammad Ḳāsim K̲h̲ān Ẓahīr al-Da…

, the second ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār [ q.v.] dynasty, was born in 1185/1771 and bore the name Bābā K̲h̲ān. He was made governor of Fārs, Kirmān, and Yazd by his uncle, Āḳā Muḥammad K̲h̲ān, and heir apparent in 1211/1796-7. He succeeded to the throne in 1212/1797. He died in 1250/18 34 and was buried at Ḳumm. Much of his reign of 38 years and 5 months was spent in military expeditions against internal rebels and external foes. On the assassination of Aḳā Muḥammad K̲h̲ān in 1212/1797 Bābā K̲h̲ān hastened fr…

i.—Geography The geological background: The alignments of Iran’s principal topographie features, represented by the Kūhhā-yi Alburz and the Zagros Chain, are west to east and north-west to south-east, respectively. In broad context, the Alburz is a continuation of the European Alpine structures, while the Zagros chain has been linked through Cyprus with the Dinaric Alps (Fisher, 1956). The structure of the mountain rim of the country has been influenced strongly by tectonic movements which have n…

(in Arabic Iṣbahān), a town and province in Persia, whose name, according to Hamza al-Iṣfahānī, means “the armies” (Māfarruk̲h̲ī, Kitāb Maḥāsin Iṣfahān , ed. Sayyid D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Tihrāni, Tehran n.d., 5-6). 1. history The province, whose precise boundaries have varied at different times, is bounded on the north-east and east by the central desert. In the south-east by Yazd and Fārs, in the south and south-west by the Bak̲h̲tiyārī mountains, with peaks rising to over 11,000 ft., in the north-west by Luristān, Kazzāz, Kamara, a…

, arabicized form of dehkān , the head of a village and a member of the lesser feudal nobility of Sāsānian Persia. The power of the dihḳāns derived from their hereditary title to the local administration. They were an immensely important class, although the actual area of land they cultivated as the hereditary possession of their family was often small. They were the representatives of the government vis-à-vis the peasants and their principal function was to collect taxes; and, in the opinion of Chr…

, Muḥammad b. Asʿad D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn , was born in 830/1427 at Dawān in the district of Kāzarūn, where his father was Ḳāḍī; he claimed descent from the Caliph Abū Bakr whence his nisba al-Ṣiddīḳī. He studied with his father and then went to S̲h̲īrāz where he was a pupil of Mawlānā Muḥyī ’l-Dīn Gūs̲h̲a Kinārī and Mawlānā Humām al-Dīn Gulbārī and Ṣafī al-Dīn Īd̲j̲ī. He held the office of Ṣadr under Yūsuf b. D̲j̲ahāns̲h̲āh, the Ḳarā Ḳoyūnlū, and after resigning this office became Mudarris of the Begum Madrasa, also known as the Dār al-Aytām . Under the Āḳ Ḳoyūnlū he beca…

The term īlāt (pl. of īl ), first used in Persian in Ilk̲h̲ānid times, denotes nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes. ʿAs̲h̲āʾir , ḳabāʾil and tawāʾif ¶ are also used in this sense, and for tribes generally, whether strictly speaking nomadic or not. The combination īlāt wa ʿas̲h̲āʾir is a phrase frequently encountered in both medieval and modern times, and suggests that the two terms are broadly synonymous. In medieval times īlāt also occurs in conjunction with ulūs , i.e. tribal followers, and oymaḳ . From early times the population of many parts of Persia has derived its living fro…

(a., sing, mawkib ), processions. 1. Under the ʿAbbāsids and Fāṭimids The basic meaning of procession (mounted or unmounted), cortège, is found in ḥadīt̲h̲ (al-Buk̲h̲ārī. Badʾ al-k̲h̲alḳ , 6; Ibn Ḥanbal, iii, 213; al-Dārimī, 2695). This is the precise sense given in the dictionaries, and that used by the Umayyads, ʿAbbāsids and Fāṭimids, often to describe the cortège of an amīr , wazīr , or other official (see, e.g., al-Ṭabarī, ii, 1731; Hilāl al-Ṣābī, Rusūm dār al-k̲h̲ilāfa , 9-10, 12, 14ff.). By the 4th/10th century, it had acquired the broader meaning of audience as well …

, municipality, the term used in Turkish ( belediye ), Arabic, and other Islamic languages, to denote modern municipal institutions of European type, as against earlier Islamic forms of urban organisation [see madīna ]. The term, like so many modern Islamic neologisms and the innovations they express, first appeared in Turkey, where Western-style municipal institutions and services were introduced as part of the general reform programme of the Tanẓīmāt [ q.v.]. (1) turkey. The first approaches towards modern municipal administration seems to have been made by Sultan …

, in modern Arabic constitution. A word of Persian origin, it seems originally to have meant a person exercising authority, whether religious or political, and was later specialized to designate members of the Zoroastrian priesthood. It occurs in Kalīla wa-Dimna in the sense of “counsellor”, and recurs with the same sense, at a much later date, in the phrase Dustūr-i mükerrem , one of the honorific titles of the Grand Vizier in the Ottoman Empire. More commonly, dustūr was used in the sense of “rule” or “regulation”, and in particular the code of ru…

(Pers. kalān , “big, great”) is used in the 8th/14th and 9th/15th centuries to mean “leader” (cf. Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, Cinq opuscules de Ḥāfiẓ-i Abrū concernant l’histoire de l’Iran au temps de Tamerlan , ed. F. Tauer, Prague 1959, 7; Muʿīn al-Dīn Natanzī, Muntak̲h̲ab al-tawārīk̲h̲-i muʿīnī , ed. J. Aubin, Tehran 1957, 257, 258, 261), and occurs especially with reference to the tribal and military classes. The phrase īl va ulūs va kalāntarān va sar k̲h̲aylān va aʿrāb va aḥs̲h̲ām va farīḳ-i Balūč is found in a document dated 874/1470 issued by Uzun Ḥasan for the ¶ government of K̲h̲urāsān and Trans…

, in modern Arabic “government”. Like many political neologisms in Islamic languages, the word seems to have been first used in its modern sense in 19th century Turkey, and to have passed from Turkish into Arabic and other languages. Ḥukūma comes from the Arabic root ḥ.k.m , with the meaning “to judge, adjudicate” (cf. the related meaning, dominant in Hebrew and other Semitic languages, of wisdom. See ḥikma ). In classical usage the verbal noun ḥukūma means the act or office of adjudication, of dispensing justice, whether by a sovereign, a judge, …

(p.) as a general term designates a present, usually from an inferior to a superior. As a technical term it denotes a “regular” tax ( pīs̲h̲kas̲h̲-i mustamarrī ) and an ad hoc tax levied by rulers on provincial governors and others, and an ad hoc impost laid by governors and officials in positions of power on the population under their control. The offering of presents to rulers and others was known from early times (cf. Abu ’l-Faḍl Bayhaḳī, Tārīk̲h̲-i Bayhaḳī , ed. A.A. Fayyāḍ, Mas̲h̲had 1350 s̲h̲ /1971, 655, 679, 705, 734-5, 789, 815). With the proliferatio…

, Naḳāra-K̲h̲āna (p.), kind of military band. The origins of the naḳḳāra-k̲h̲āna , so-called after the naḳḳāra or kettle-drum, which was one of the instruments of the military band belonging to rulers and military leaders, are obscure. There are references to it from an early period when it appears to have been synonymous with the ṭabl-k̲h̲āna [ q.v.]. Originally, its purpose was probably military and it retained this function in the Persian army until modern times. It also had ceremonial functions and these tended in the course of time to overshadow …

b. muḥammad al-kās̲h̲ānī , s̲h̲araf al-dīn abū naṣr , was treasurer and ʿāriḍ al-d̲j̲ays̲h̲ to the Sald̲j̲ūḳ sultan, Muḥammad b. Maliks̲h̲āh. After being succeeded by S̲h̲ams al-Mulk b. Niẓām al-Mulk as ʿāriḍ al-d̲j̲ays̲h̲ he went to Bag̲h̲dād. He was imprisoned during the reign of Maḥmūd b. Maliks̲h̲āh for a short period but subsequently appointed wazīr by Maḥmūd (521/1127-522/1128). From 526/1132-528/1134 he was wazīr to the caliph, al-Mustars̲h̲id. In 529/1134 he became wazīr to Masʿūd b. Muḥammad and held office until 530/1135-6. He died in Bag̲h̲dād in 533/113…

, commercial privileges, capitulations. i. The earliest documentary evidence for commercial privileges emanating from Muslim chanceries in the Mediterranean world dates from the 6th/12th century. While it is unlikely that these documents represent the earliest manifestation of that diplomatic and commercial activity between rulers of Islam and Christendom which culminated in the Ottoman Capitulations, it is probably useless to speculate upon either the form or the language of chancery instruments bef…