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[German Version] The Testament of Job is a pseudepigraphal Jewish work in which the canonical book of Job is retold following the schema of testamentary literature. The text is extant in Greek, Slavonic, and Coptic fragments. The work comprises four sections, framed by a prologue in which Job (Jobab) assembles his children and an epilogue (52–53) describing the ascent …

[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Old Testament – III. Judaism – IV. New Testament – V. Historical and Systematic Theology– VI. Practical Theology I. Religious Studies From the perspective of religious studies, blessing and curse are dense, complex terms, hard to summarize in a single concept that would include every religious symbol system. They should not be thought of primarily as opposites but as parallel polyvalent ter…

[German Version] (Heb. for “scrolls”). The plural Megillot is an artificial designation for the five books Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Qohelet, and Esther, which belong to the third part of the Old Testament ( Ketuvim, Writings; Old Testament, Bible: II, 2), but which did not yet form a unit at the time of canonization; only from the 10th century were the writings grouped together following the Pentateuch and according to the order in which they were used liturgically (see EJ IV, 1971, 829f.). In b. B.Bat. 14b the Megillot are still arranged according to their presumed age. The liturgical use of all Megillot is first attested in some manuscripts of Sof. 14.1 (251) from the 11th century. The singular Megillah refers only to Esther, which was read publicly as an individual scroll already in talmudic times ( y. Meg. 1:1 [70a]) on two days of Purim and later also on the evening and morning of the first feast day ( Sof. 21:7 [361]). While Esther must be read from a proper scroll, the other Megillot can also be read from codices or books. The reasons for the cust…

[German Version] I. General – II. Canonical Book of Ezra – III. 1 Esdras – IV. 4 Ezra – V. 5 Ezra, 6 Ezra I. General In the Masoretic canon, Ezra and Nehemiah were considered one book of Ezra on into the 15th century. The LXX adopted this as Esdras β᾿ and numbered its chapters 1–23; it prefaced, however, as Esdras α᾿, a(n older?) freer translation of 2 Chr 35f.; Ezra 1–10; Neh 7:72b-8:12 and expanded it with a pagan account (chs. 3–5) not attested in Hebrew. The Vulgate classified …

[German Version] (“holy”), a short Hebrew-Aramaic prayer handed down in various versions and containing supplications for the coming of the kingdom of God and for peace, in addition to doxological formulae. The “Half Qaddish” is recited in alternation with a prayer leader at the beginning and especially at the conclusion of the main sections of the liturgy (Prayer: XI; in the latter case often with an additional Aramaic. supplication for peace as “Complete Qaddish”); mourners pray slightly altered…

[German Version] I. Old Testament The noun tôrāh (הרָוֹתּ) is usually derived from the verb הרי/ yrh, “show,” hiphil “instruct.” In Israelite wisdom literature, it denotes ethical and religious instruction by parents (Prov 1:8; 4:1; 6:20; 31:26) or sages (Prov 13:14) as well as religious instruction by priests (Jer 18:18). As a term denoting the law (Law and legislation: II; LXX: νόμος/ nómos), it stands at the end of an ongoing theologization o…

[German Version] Almost every Jewish and Samaritan synagogue contains a repository for the Torah scroll(s). There is archaeological evidence of Torah shrines (Dura-Europos: II); there are also representations in Palestinian mosaic floors (Beth-Shean, Hammat-Tiberias [Mosaic art: III, fig. 2]); in antiquity a Torah shrine could take the …

[German Version] Jewish historian of the 1st century ce. His works are only known through the polemical remarks of Josephus ( Vita 336ff.) and references by and excerpts in Christian authors (Julius Africanus, Eusebius, Photius, Diogenes Laertius). Justus wrote a history of the Jewish Revolt, in which he had participated in Galilee, directed against Josephus. A chronicle of the Jewish kings from Moses to Agrippa I is only attested in fragments (FGH 734). His authorship of Commentarioli de scripturis is doubtful (Jer. Vir. ill. 14). Andreas Lehnardt Bibliography ¶ T. Rajak, “Justus of Tibe…

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[German Version] Along with Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph", Ishmael was one of the most important rabbinical scholars of the Tannaitic period (c. 100 ce). Only isolated, vague references in rabbinic literature imply biographical details. Since there were several rabbi Ishmaels and he is usually mentioned without patronymic, their historicity can hardly be verified. He may have been from a priestly family ( b. Ber. 7a; AR…

[English Version] I. ReligionsgeschichtlichS. und F. erscheinen aus religionswiss. Sicht als dichte, komplexe Begriffe, die sich schwer in einem einheitlichen, alle rel. Symbolsysteme übergreifenden Konzept zusammenfassen lassen. S. und F. sind nicht primär als Gegensätze, sondern als parallele, polyvalente Begriffe zu verstehen, welche unterschiedliche Formen von rel. Kommunikation zum Ausdruck bringen. Als komplexe Vorgänge bilden sie eine Kondensierung unterschiedlicher Kodierungsebenen rel. Bo…

[English Version] . Fast jede jüd. und samaritanische Synagoge enthält einen Aufbewahrungsort für die Torarolle(n). T., die archäologisch (Dura-Europos: II.) und durch Abb. auf Mosaikfußböden in Palästina (Beth-Shean, Hammat-Tiberias [Mosaik-Kunst: III., Abb.2]) nachgewiesen werden können, sind für die Antike in der architektonischen Form von Aedicula, Nische und Apsis bekannt. Der T. ruht in der Regel auf einer festen Plattform, die sich im Zentrum einer Wand befindet, die nach Jerusalem weist. B…

[English Version] (»heilig«), kurzes hebr.-aram. Gebet, welches in verschiedenen Versionen überliefert ist und, neben doxologischen Formeln, Bitten um das Kommen der Königsherrschaft Gottes und um Frieden enthält. Das Halb-Q. wird im Wechsel mit einem Vorbeter zu Beginn und bes. am Schluß der Hauptteile der Liturgie (Gebet: XI.) rezitiert (dann oft mit zusätzlicher aram. Friedensbitte als Voll-Q.); Trauernde beten am Grab und in den Gottesdiensten leicht veränderte Q.-Formen; das Q. de-Rabbanan wi…

[English Version] I. Altes TestamentDer Begriff T. (תּוֹרָה) wird meist von dem Verbum ירה/jrh, »zeigen«, Hifil, »unterweisen«, abgeleitet. In der israelit. Weisheit (Weisheitsliteratur: II.) bez. er die ethische und rel. Unterweisung durch Eltern (Spr 1,8; 4,1; 6,20; 31,26) oder Weisheitslehrer (Spr 13,14) sowie die sakrale Anweisung durch Priester (Jer 18,18). Als Bez. für das Gesetz (: II.; LXX: n̆ο´μος/nómos) steht er am Ende der sukzessiven Theologisierung des Gesetzes im Alten Israel im Gefolge der dtn. Kultuszentralisation (Josia/Josiareform) u…