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[English edition] يعود أصل مصطلح خراج إلى الكلمة اليونانية χορηγία، وانتقل إلى العربية عبر السريانية. على أنّ العرب ربطوه بالجذر خرج. شاع استخدام الكلمة في الشرق الأدنى، بخلاف مفهومها الأصلي، بمعنى الضريبة عموماً، وكان يقصد بها في عدّة حالات وبكيفيّة يشوبها الخلط ضرائب محدّدة [انظر جزية]. وقد استخدمتها المصادر التقنيّة والقانونية بشكل أخصّ على الأقلّ قبل نشأة الدول التركيّة، بمعنى ضريبة الأرض، وسنقوم بدراستها بهذا المعنى خاصة. بالنسبة إلى البقيّة، [انظر: بيت المال، ضريبة، ضيعة، جزية]. 1. العصر الكلاسيكي كان العرب مع بداية المغازي، وبغضّ النظر عن طبيعة الصلح الذي يعقدونه مع…

[English edition] لم تذكر كلمة حسبة في القرآن ووقع استعمالها من ناحية في معنى واجب كلّ مسلم في «الأمر بالمعروف والنهي عن المنكر» ومن ناحية أخرى في معنى وظيفة شخص يعهد إليه فعليّا في مدينة بتطبيق هذا القانون المتمثّل في مراقبة السلوك الأخلاقي وعلى الأخصّ مراقبة الأسواق. ويسمّى الشخص المكلّف بالحسبة بالمحتسب. ويبدو أنّه لا يوجد أيّ نص يوضّح بصراحة سبب اختيار هذه العبارة أو كيفية ظهور المعاني المذكورة أعلاه من فكرة «الحساب» أو «الكفاية» التي يعبر عنها جذر الكلمة. 1. فكرة عامّة: المصادر والجذور والواجبات إنّ الازدواجية في معنى عبارة الحسبة هي السبب في وجود المعلومات حولها في مثل هذا …

[English edition] الديوان يعني مجموعة شعريّة أو نثريّة (ارجع إلى الموادّ التالية: عربية، أدب فارسي، أدب تركي، أدب أردوي وشعر)، وهو سجلّ أو إدارة. وقد اختلفت المصادر حول جذور الكلمة اللغوية، إذ نسبها البعض إلى أصول فارسية مشتقّة من «داف» أي مجنون أو شيطان، مقترنة بوصف الكتبة. واعتبرها آخرون كلمة عربيّة مشتقة من فعل دوّن، أي جمع أو سجّل، ممّا يعني مجموعة من السجلاّت أو الأوراق (انظر 23- القلقشندي، صبح، الفصل الأول، 90. لسان العرب، 7/ 23ـ4.الصولي، أدب الكتاب، 187. الماوردي، الأحكام السلطانية، 175. الجهشياري، وزراء، 16–17. راجع البلاذري، فتوح،449). ولكن هذا اللفظ يعني إداريّا سجلّ الجند…

[English edition] 1. تاريخ مؤسّسة الخلافة لم ترق دراسة الخلافة منذ تأسيسها والتطوّرات اللّاحقة التي مرّت بها إلى درجة الشموليّة إلى يومنا هذا. والسبب الرئيس هو أنهّا تبدو غير ممكنة بمعزل عن الدّراسات التاريخيّة للحكومات المختلفة. وهذا ما لم يتحقّق إذ الدراسات ليست مستوفاة دائماً أو هي غير موجودة تماما. وفي المقابل نجد دراسات عن مختلف العقائد أكثر تطوّرا مع أنّ قيمتها العلميّة اختلفت باختلاف الفترات التاريخيّة. فكانت النتيجة أنّ ما أمكن تحقيقه من محاولات سابقة، ينقصه التعمّق أو هو ذو آفاق تاريخيّة محدودة. وهو ما يضطرّ…

[English edition] 1. جغرافيا 1.1 الخصائص الجيولوجيّة تعتبر سلسلتا جبال البورز وجبال زاغروس اللتّان تمتدّان تباعا من الغرب إلى الشّرق ومن الشّمال الغربيّ إلى الجنوب الشّرقيّ أهمّ الوحدات الطّبوغرافيّة بإيران. فعلى نطاق واسع، تمثّل جبال البورز امتدادا للبنى الآلبيّة الأوروبيّة، بينما تعتبر جبال زاغروس تواصلا للآلب الديناريّة عبر قبرص (فيشير، 1956). وقد تأثّرت البنية الجبليّة لحاشية البلاد بشدّة الحركات البنائيّة التّي لم تسبّب فقط التواءً كبيرًا للطبقات أدّى إلى ظهور جبال مرتفعة، بل أدّت أيضاً إلى انقلاب…

, term which may be translated approximately as chamberlain, used in Muslim countries for the person responsible for guarding the door of access to the ruler, so that only approved visitors may approach him. The term quickly became a title corresponding to a position in the court and to an office the exact nature of which varied considerably in different regions and in different periods. Basically the Master of Ceremonies, the ḥād̲j̲ib often appears as being in fact a superintendent of the Palace, a chief of the guard or a righter of wrongs, s…

, formerly the name of a district to the west of Nīs̲h̲āpūr in Ḵh̲urāsān. In Ṭāhirid times it contained 390 villages with a revenue assessment of some 236,000 dirhams . The chief towns were Sabzawār and Ḵh̲usrawd̲j̲ird. It capitulated to a Muslim army under ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿĀmir in 30/650-1. In 548-6/1153-4 it was devastated by Yanāltegīn. According to Ḥamd Allāh Mustawfī its people were It̲h̲nā ʿAs̲h̲arī S̲h̲īʿīs. Among its famous men were Niẓām al-Mulk, the wazīr of Alp Arslān and Maliks̲h̲āh, Abū ’l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. Ḥusayn Bayhaḳī, the author of the Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Bayhaḳī …

(a.), pl. ḳanawāt , ḳanā , ḳunī , aḳniya , “canal, irrigation system, water-pipe”. Used also for a baton, a lance, etc., the term originally meant “reed” [see ḳaṣab ] and it is with this meaning and that of “rush” that the word ḳanū is known in Akkadian (cf. Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdwörter , Leipzig 1915, 56); becoming ḳanä in Hebrew and ḳanyā in Aramaic, it passed into Arabic and was also borrowed in Greek and Latin in the forms χάννα χάννη (χάνη), canna ; by an evolution parallel to that of ḳanāt , the Latin word canalis “in the shape of a reed”, acquired the meaning of “pipe, canal”. In Persian ḳanāt is u…

The word is derived from the Mongol daru-, ‘to press, to seal’ and was used to denote a chief in the Mongol feudal hierarchy (K. H. Menges, Glossar zu den Volkskundlichen Texten aus Ost. Turkistan , ii, Wiesbaden 1955, 714 s.v. dor γ a; B. Vladimirtsov, Le régime social des Mongols , Paris 1948, 181, 209, 214; P. Pelliot, Notes sur l’histoire de la Horde d’or , Paris 1950,73). In 617-8/1221 there was a Mongol dārūk̲h̲ačī , or representative of the head of the empire, in Almālīg̲h̲ beside the native ruler. The duties laid upon him included the makin…

This term, commonly used in modern Arabic to mean a “society” or “association”, is derived from the root D̲J̲ - M - ʿ, meaning “to collect, join together, etc.”. In its modern sense it appears to have come into use quite recently, and was perhaps first used to refer to the organized monastic communities or congregations which appeared in the eastern Uniate Churches in Syria and Lebanon at the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries ( e.g., D̲j̲amʿiyyat al-Muk̲h̲alliṣ , the Salvatorians, a Greek Catholic order founded c. 1708). In …

(p), God, lord, master. There is no established etymology for this word and no Middle or Old Persian antecedent. It is used in G̲h̲aznawid times in the sense of lord or master (cf. Abu ’l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. Ḥusayn Bayhaḳī, Tārīk̲h̲-i Bayhaḳī , ed. ʿAlī Akbar Fayyāḍ, Mas̲h̲had 1971, 23, 435, and passim ). In documents and letters belonging to the Sald̲j̲ūḳs and K̲h̲wārazms̲h̲āhs it is used as a term of address to the sultan, usually with some qualifying word or phrase such as k̲h̲udāwand-i ʿālam “lord of the world” (cf. Muntad̲j̲ab al-Dīn al-Ḏj̲uwaynī, ʿAtabat al-kataba, ed. Muḥammad Ḳazwīn…

(i) The history of the institution of the caliphate A study of the caliphate, its institution and subsequent developments, has never been attempted in its entirety until the present. The principal reason is that it has not seemed possible to conduct such a survey independently of historical studies relating to different reigns, which are still in most cases insufficient, or even non-existent, whereas studies of doctrine, while more advanced, have not been developed to the same extent with regard to the v…

(pl. k̲h̲āliṣad̲j̲āt ) as a term signifying crown lands comes into general use in Persian sources in the middle ages. It is also applied to lesser rivers, ḳanāts [ q.v.] and wells belonging to the crown. In early Islamic times the term ṣawāfī [ q.v.] is used to denote crown lands in general, while the terms ḍiyāʿ al-k̲h̲āṣṣa , ḍiyāʿ al-sulṭān and ḍiyāʿ al-k̲h̲ulafāʾ are applied to the private estates of the caliph. Under the early semi-independent dynasties which arose in Persia on the fragmentation of the caliphate, the terms k̲h̲āṣṣ and k̲h̲āṣṣa are used of the …

(a.), court. The subject-matter of this article is the administration of justice, and the organisation of its administration, in the Muslim countries, the office of the judge being dealt with in the art. ḳāḍī . The following topics are covered: 1. General The judicial functions of the Prophet, which had been expressly attributed to him in the Ḳurʾān (IV, 65, 105; V, 42, 48-9; XXIV, 48, 51), were taken over after his death by the first caliphs, who administered the law in person in Medina. Already under ʿUmar, the expansion of the Islami…

(a.), pl. k̲h̲iṣyān “castrated man, eunuch”. I.—In the central Islamic lands. From the 4th/10th century especially, several euphemisms were applied to eunuchs, who were numerous in the palaces and frequently invested with important functions: notably k̲h̲ādim (coll. k̲h̲adam , pl. k̲h̲uddām ), muʿallim , s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ , ustād̲h̲ (see M. Canard, Ak̲h̲bâr ar-Râdî ..., i, 210-1, note), later on ṭawās̲h̲ī (which, according to al-Maḳrīzī, Hist , des Sultans Mamlouks , tr. Quatremère, 1/2 (1849), 132, comes from the Turkish ṭābūs̲h̲ī = Osmanli̊ tapug̲h̲či̊ …

, which has the title dār al-ʿilm , the capital of the province of Fārs, is an Islamic foundation, on a continually inhabited site, which may go back to Sāsānid, or possibly earlier, times. It was probably founded, or restored, by Muḥammad the brother of Had̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲ b. Yūsuf, or by his cousin Muḥammad b. al-Ḳāsim, in 74/693 (A.J. Arberry, Shiraz , Persian city of saints and poets, Norman, Okla. 1960, 31). It is situated at 5,000 ft. above sea level in 29° 36′ N. and 52° 32′ E. at the western ¶ end of a large basin some 80 miles long and up to 15 miles wide, though less in the vici…

, non-Ḳurʾānic term which is used to mean on the one hand the duty of every Muslim to “promote good and forbid evil” and, on the other, the function of the person who is effectively entrusted in a town with the application of this rule in the supervision of moral behaviour and more particularly of the markets; this person entrusted with the ḥisba was called the muḥtasib . There seems to exist ¶ no text which states explicitly either the reason for the choice of this term or how the meanings mentioned above have arisen from the idea of “calculation” or “sufficiency” which is expressed by the root. i.—G…

, a term with the primitive meaning in Mongolian of “favour” or “reward granted by the ruler to someone, sometimes of a hereditary nature” (Doerfer, Türkische und mongolische Elemente in Neupersischen , i, 351 no. 228). Soyūrg̲h̲āl kardan is used synonymously with soyurg̲h̲amis̲h̲ kardan “to grant a favour”. The plural ( soyūrg̲h̲ālāt ) is often associated with such words as ʿawāṭif tas̲h̲rīfāt and inʿāmāt , “favours”, “presents” (see e.g. Muḥammad b. Hindūs̲h̲āh Nak̲h̲d̲j̲iwānī, Dastūr al-kātib , ed. A.A. Alizade, Moscow, i, 1964, i/2, 1971, ii, …

, a word derived, via Syriac, from Greek χορηϒία, but attached by the Arabs to the native root k̲h̲ . r. d̲j̲ . Contrary to its original meaning, the word seems, in the current usage of the Near East, to have denoted “tax” in general, and is in fact found with reference to various specific taxes, thus causing considerable confusion [see d̲j̲izya ]. Arabic technical and legal literature uses it more specifically, at least in the period before the formation of Turkish states, in the sense of land tax, and it is this sense which is exclusively discussed in the present article. For other taxes, see bayt…

, the name of a Persian province and of its present capital. The name goes back to the form Carmania, which is found in Strabo (xv, 2, 14), and which is said to be derived from the name of an ancient capital, Carmana (Ptolemy, Geography , vi, 8; Ammanianus Marcellinus, xxiii, 6, 48. See further Marquart, Ērānšahr , 30, on the name Carmania, and Browne, Lit. Hist. of Persia , i, 145, for the later popular etymology of the name). The Province. The province of Kirmān is situated to the south-west of the great central desert of Persia, the Das̲h̲t-i Lūt, which narrows to some 100…

, a collection of poetry or prose [see ʿarabiyya ; persian literature ; turkish literature ; urdū literature and s̲h̲iʿr ], a register, or an office. Sources differ about linguistic roots. Some ascribe to it a Persian origin from dev , ‘mad’ or ‘devil’, to describe secretaries. Others consider it Arabic from dawwana , to collect or to register, thus meaning a collection of records or sheets. (See Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , i, 90; LA, xvii, 23-4; Ṣūlī, Adab al-kuttāb , 187; Māwardī, al-Aḥkām al-sulṭāniyya , 175; D̲j̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, Wuzarāʾ , ¶ 16-17; cf. Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ ,…

(a.), two terms of mediaeval Islamic finance and land tenure. The first denotes special items consisting of immoveable property selected from booty by the leader [see fayʾ and g̲h̲anīma ], while the second is the term for land which the Imām selects from the conquered territories for the treasury with the consent of those who had a share in the booty (al-Māwardī, al-Aḥkām al-sulṭāniyya , Cairo 1966, 192). In pre-Islamic Arabia the leader was also entitled to one-fourth ( rubʿ ) or onefifth ( k̲h̲ums ) of the booty in addition to the ṣafī . The custom of k̲h̲ums was upheld by the prophet and …

(a.), nationalism. 1. In the Arab world east of the Mag̲h̲rib. The term derives from ḳawm , a term of tribal provenance used to denote a group of people having or claiming a common ancestor, or a tribe descended from a single ancestor. One’s ḳawm is simply one’s people, either genealogically determined or mythologically and folklorishly depicted. In this century, ḳawmiyya refers to the movement of nationalism among the Arabs of the Ottoman dominions in the Fertile Crescent that were conquered by the Allies in the Great War. The use …

(a.) “water”. The present article covers the religio-magical and the Islamic legal aspects of water, together with irrigation techniques, as follows: 1. Hydromancy A a vehicle for the sacred, water has been employed for various techniques of divination, and in particular, for potamonancy (sc. divination by means of the colour of the waters of a river and their ebbing and flowing; cf. FY. Cumont, Études syriennes , Paris 1917, 250 ff., notably on the purification power of the Euphrates, consulted for divinatory reasons); for pegomancy (sc…

, the third ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty [ q.v.], was born on 5 January 1808. He succeeded to the throne in 1834 on the death of his grandfather Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh [ q.v.]. He was the eldest ¶ son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā [ q.v.]. His mother was the daughter of Muḥammad K̲h̲ān Beglarbegi Ḳād̲j̲ār Develu. He had two full brothers, Ḳahramān Mīrzā and Bahman Mīrzā and twenty-three half-brothers. He died on 6 S̲h̲awwāl 1264/4 September 1848 and was buried at Ḳum. His chief wife, the mother of Nāṣir al-Dīn S̲h̲āh [ q.v.], was Malik D̲j̲ahān K̲h̲ānum, whose father was Muḥammad Ḳāsim K̲h̲ān Ẓahīr al-Da…

, the second ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār [ q.v.] dynasty, was born in 1185/1771 and bore the name Bābā K̲h̲ān. He was made governor of Fārs, Kirmān, and Yazd by his uncle, Āḳā Muḥammad K̲h̲ān, and heir apparent in 1211/1796-7. He succeeded to the throne in 1212/1797. He died in 1250/18 34 and was buried at Ḳumm. Much of his reign of 38 years and 5 months was spent in military expeditions against internal rebels and external foes. On the assassination of Aḳā Muḥammad K̲h̲ān in 1212/1797 Bābā K̲h̲ān hastened fr…

i.—Geography The geological background: The alignments of Iran’s principal topographie features, represented by the Kūhhā-yi Alburz and the Zagros Chain, are west to east and north-west to south-east, respectively. In broad context, the Alburz is a continuation of the European Alpine structures, while the Zagros chain has been linked through Cyprus with the Dinaric Alps (Fisher, 1956). The structure of the mountain rim of the country has been influenced strongly by tectonic movements which have n…

(in Arabic Iṣbahān), a town and province in Persia, whose name, according to Hamza al-Iṣfahānī, means “the armies” (Māfarruk̲h̲ī, Kitāb Maḥāsin Iṣfahān , ed. Sayyid D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Tihrāni, Tehran n.d., 5-6). 1. history The province, whose precise boundaries have varied at different times, is bounded on the north-east and east by the central desert. In the south-east by Yazd and Fārs, in the south and south-west by the Bak̲h̲tiyārī mountains, with peaks rising to over 11,000 ft., in the north-west by Luristān, Kazzāz, Kamara, a…

, arabicized form of dehkān , the head of a village and a member of the lesser feudal nobility of Sāsānian Persia. The power of the dihḳāns derived from their hereditary title to the local administration. They were an immensely important class, although the actual area of land they cultivated as the hereditary possession of their family was often small. They were the representatives of the government vis-à-vis the peasants and their principal function was to collect taxes; and, in the opinion of Chr…

, Muḥammad b. Asʿad D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn , was born in 830/1427 at Dawān in the district of Kāzarūn, where his father was Ḳāḍī; he claimed descent from the Caliph Abū Bakr whence his nisba al-Ṣiddīḳī. He studied with his father and then went to S̲h̲īrāz where he was a pupil of Mawlānā Muḥyī ’l-Dīn Gūs̲h̲a Kinārī and Mawlānā Humām al-Dīn Gulbārī and Ṣafī al-Dīn Īd̲j̲ī. He held the office of Ṣadr under Yūsuf b. D̲j̲ahāns̲h̲āh, the Ḳarā Ḳoyūnlū, and after resigning this office became Mudarris of the Begum Madrasa, also known as the Dār al-Aytām . Under the Āḳ Ḳoyūnlū he beca…

The term īlāt (pl. of īl ), first used in Persian in Ilk̲h̲ānid times, denotes nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes. ʿAs̲h̲āʾir , ḳabāʾil and tawāʾif ¶ are also used in this sense, and for tribes generally, whether strictly speaking nomadic or not. The combination īlāt wa ʿas̲h̲āʾir is a phrase frequently encountered in both medieval and modern times, and suggests that the two terms are broadly synonymous. In medieval times īlāt also occurs in conjunction with ulūs , i.e. tribal followers, and oymaḳ . From early times the population of many parts of Persia has derived its living fro…

(a., sing, mawkib ), processions. 1. Under the ʿAbbāsids and Fāṭimids The basic meaning of procession (mounted or unmounted), cortège, is found in ḥadīt̲h̲ (al-Buk̲h̲ārī. Badʾ al-k̲h̲alḳ , 6; Ibn Ḥanbal, iii, 213; al-Dārimī, 2695). This is the precise sense given in the dictionaries, and that used by the Umayyads, ʿAbbāsids and Fāṭimids, often to describe the cortège of an amīr , wazīr , or other official (see, e.g., al-Ṭabarī, ii, 1731; Hilāl al-Ṣābī, Rusūm dār al-k̲h̲ilāfa , 9-10, 12, 14ff.). By the 4th/10th century, it had acquired the broader meaning of audience as well …

, municipality, the term used in Turkish ( belediye ), Arabic, and other Islamic languages, to denote modern municipal institutions of European type, as against earlier Islamic forms of urban organisation [see madīna ]. The term, like so many modern Islamic neologisms and the innovations they express, first appeared in Turkey, where Western-style municipal institutions and services were introduced as part of the general reform programme of the Tanẓīmāt [ q.v.]. (1) turkey. The first approaches towards modern municipal administration seems to have been made by Sultan …

, in modern Arabic constitution. A word of Persian origin, it seems originally to have meant a person exercising authority, whether religious or political, and was later specialized to designate members of the Zoroastrian priesthood. It occurs in Kalīla wa-Dimna in the sense of “counsellor”, and recurs with the same sense, at a much later date, in the phrase Dustūr-i mükerrem , one of the honorific titles of the Grand Vizier in the Ottoman Empire. More commonly, dustūr was used in the sense of “rule” or “regulation”, and in particular the code of ru…

(Pers. kalān , “big, great”) is used in the 8th/14th and 9th/15th centuries to mean “leader” (cf. Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, Cinq opuscules de Ḥāfiẓ-i Abrū concernant l’histoire de l’Iran au temps de Tamerlan , ed. F. Tauer, Prague 1959, 7; Muʿīn al-Dīn Natanzī, Muntak̲h̲ab al-tawārīk̲h̲-i muʿīnī , ed. J. Aubin, Tehran 1957, 257, 258, 261), and occurs especially with reference to the tribal and military classes. The phrase īl va ulūs va kalāntarān va sar k̲h̲aylān va aʿrāb va aḥs̲h̲ām va farīḳ-i Balūč is found in a document dated 874/1470 issued by Uzun Ḥasan for the ¶ government of K̲h̲urāsān and Trans…

, in modern Arabic “government”. Like many political neologisms in Islamic languages, the word seems to have been first used in its modern sense in 19th century Turkey, and to have passed from Turkish into Arabic and other languages. Ḥukūma comes from the Arabic root ḥ.k.m , with the meaning “to judge, adjudicate” (cf. the related meaning, dominant in Hebrew and other Semitic languages, of wisdom. See ḥikma ). In classical usage the verbal noun ḥukūma means the act or office of adjudication, of dispensing justice, whether by a sovereign, a judge, …

(p.) as a general term designates a present, usually from an inferior to a superior. As a technical term it denotes a “regular” tax ( pīs̲h̲kas̲h̲-i mustamarrī ) and an ad hoc tax levied by rulers on provincial governors and others, and an ad hoc impost laid by governors and officials in positions of power on the population under their control. The offering of presents to rulers and others was known from early times (cf. Abu ’l-Faḍl Bayhaḳī, Tārīk̲h̲-i Bayhaḳī , ed. A.A. Fayyāḍ, Mas̲h̲had 1350 s̲h̲ /1971, 655, 679, 705, 734-5, 789, 815). With the proliferatio…

, Naḳāra-K̲h̲āna (p.), kind of military band. The origins of the naḳḳāra-k̲h̲āna , so-called after the naḳḳāra or kettle-drum, which was one of the instruments of the military band belonging to rulers and military leaders, are obscure. There are references to it from an early period when it appears to have been synonymous with the ṭabl-k̲h̲āna [ q.v.]. Originally, its purpose was probably military and it retained this function in the Persian army until modern times. It also had ceremonial functions and these tended in the course of time to overshadow …

b. muḥammad al-kās̲h̲ānī , s̲h̲araf al-dīn abū naṣr , was treasurer and ʿāriḍ al-d̲j̲ays̲h̲ to the Sald̲j̲ūḳ sultan, Muḥammad b. Maliks̲h̲āh. After being succeeded by S̲h̲ams al-Mulk b. Niẓām al-Mulk as ʿāriḍ al-d̲j̲ays̲h̲ he went to Bag̲h̲dād. He was imprisoned during the reign of Maḥmūd b. Maliks̲h̲āh for a short period but subsequently appointed wazīr by Maḥmūd (521/1127-522/1128). From 526/1132-528/1134 he was wazīr to the caliph, al-Mustars̲h̲id. In 529/1134 he became wazīr to Masʿūd b. Muḥammad and held office until 530/1135-6. He died in Bag̲h̲dād in 533/113…

, commercial privileges, capitulations. i. The earliest documentary evidence for commercial privileges emanating from Muslim chanceries in the Mediterranean world dates from the 6th/12th century. While it is unlikely that these documents represent the earliest manifestation of that diplomatic and commercial activity between rulers of Islam and Christendom which culminated in the Ottoman Capitulations, it is probably useless to speculate upon either the form or the language of chancery instruments bef…

(a.), an administrative-military term in the mediaeval eastern Islamic world. From the end of the 3rd/9th century, the term, which in a general sense meant a body of armed men, sufficing for the guarding and control of a town or district on the part of the sultan, is occasionally found in the specific sense of the s̲h̲urṭa [ q.v.] (Tyan, L’organisation judicaire en pays d’Islam , Paris 1938-43, ii, 366, n. 5). As the designation for a military governor of a town or province, the term s̲h̲iḥna belongs primarily to the period of the Great Sald̲j̲ūḳs, though Ab…

, a town and district north-west of Tehran and south of Gīlān. The town is situated in 36° 15 N. and 50° E., at a height of 4,165 ft. above sea level, about 90 miles from Tehran, on the edge of a wide alluvial plain with mountains about five miles to the north. It stands on the site of an ancient city built by S̲h̲āpūr II, which according to tradition was in turn on the site of a city built by S̲h̲āpūr b. Ardas̲h̲īr (Ḥamd Allāh Mustawfī, Taʾrīk̲h̲-i guzīda , ed. E. G. Browne and R. A. Nicholson, 1910-13, 830, French tr. Barbier de Meynard, Description historique de la ville de Kazvin , in JA (1857)). Its po…

(a.), pasture. 1. In nomadic Arab life. The word marʿā is used only twice in the Ḳurʾān, where it has the purpose of praising the divine power (LXXIX, 31, and LXXXVII,4). In ḥadīt̲h̲ there are also two uses of this substantive to be noted (cf. Wensinck, Concordance ); one of them touches incidentally on the problem of the exploitation of pastures, but ḥadīt̲h̲ is more explicit with reference to kalaʾ , dry and green forage. In fact, a tradition asserts that “the Muslims are united ( s̲h̲urakāʾ ) in three things: water, forage and fire”; it is the principle of…

(a), official court ceremonies, both processional and non-processional. The whole range of ceremonial, including protocol and etiquette, is called also rusūm other terms found frequently are mawsim [ q.v.] and mawkib . Mawākib [ q.v.] refer specifically to solemn processions, but seem also to have had the more general meaning of audiences (for the ʿAbbāsids, see references in D. Sourdel, Le vizirat ʿabbāside de 749 à 946, Damascus 1960, ii, 684, n. 3; for the Fāṭimids, see e.g. al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , iii, 494: d̲j̲ulūs [ al-k̲h̲alīfa ] fi ’l-mawākib; ayyām al-mawākib ). 1. Under the …

(a) Woman. 1. In the Arab world. For a long time, the problem of woman has been avoided or dealt with only partially or in a biased way, but now a general twinge of conscience has brought it to the focus of our attention. Not just one but many different problems confront the Arab woman and affect how she is seen by society. There is the legal aspect, defining the precise relationship between divine and human law; there is the collection of “distorted pictures” (the expression used by Etiemble ¶ with which literature in particular presents the “myth” of woman; and there is feminine b…

, a town and province in western Persia. The province is situated between lat. 34° N. and 35° N. long. 44° 5′ to 48° 0′ E. It lies to the east and north of ʿIrāḳ and Lurīstān-i Kūčik (or Pus̲h̲t-i Kūh) and to the south and west of Kurdistān and Asadābād. In the early 20th century the province was divided into nineteen bulūks . These were Bālādih, Wastām, Miyān Darband or Bīlawar, Pus̲h̲t-i Darband or Bālā Darband, Dīnawar, Kuliyāʾī Saḥna, Kanguwār, Asadābād, Harsīn, Čamčamāl, Durū Faramān, Māhīdas̲h̲t, Hārūnābād, Gūrān, ¶ Kirind, Zuhāb, Aywān and Hulaylān (Gove…

, agriculture. Falḥ , the act of cleaving and cutting, when applied to the soil has the meaning of “to break up in order to cultivate”, or “to plough”. Fallāḥ “ploughman”, filāḥa “ploughing”. But from pre-Islamic times the word filāḥa has assumed a wider meaning to denote the occupation of husbandry, agriculture. In this sense it is synonymous with zirāʿa , to which the ancients preferred filāḥa (all the earlier writers called their works on agriculture Kitāb al-Filāḥa ). At the present time this latter word is very widely used in North Africa, both …

( kačar “marching quickly”, cf. Sulaymān Efendī, Lug̲h̲at-i Čag̲h̲atai , Istanbul 1298, 214; P. Pelliot, Notes sur l’histoire de la horde d’or, Paris 1950, 203-4), a Turcoman tribe, to which the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty of Persia belonged; also a village in the Lītkūh district of Āmul [ q.v.]. Nineteenth century Persian historians assert that the Ḳād̲j̲ār took their name from Ḳād̲j̲ār Noyān b. Sirtāḳ Noyān. The latter was the son of Sābā Noyān b. D̲j̲alāʾir, and was appointed atabeg [ q.v.] to Arg̲h̲ūn (Riḍā Ḳulī K̲h̲ān Hidāyat, Tāʾrīk̲h̲-i rawḍat al-ṣafā-yi nāṣirī , Te…

is used to designate both the descendant of a S̲h̲īʿī imām and the shrine of such a person (with which this article is mainly concerned). The imāmzādagān are thus sayyids [ q.v.], but all sayyids are not accorded the title of imāmzāda . In common usage it is given to the sons and grandsons of the imāms, but excluding those who themselves became imāms, and also to those of their descendants distinguished by special sanctity or by suffering martyrdom. It is not normally accorded to the female descendants of the imāms. The lives of many of the imāmzādagān are recorded in biographical and hagio…

, Persian statesman, was the third son of Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Hās̲h̲im, the headman, or kadk̲h̲udā-bās̲h̲ī , of the Ḥaydarīk̲h̲āna quarters of S̲h̲īrāz in the reign of Nādir S̲h̲āh. His ancestors were said to have been converts to Islam from Judaism. One of them emigrated from Ḳazwīn to Iṣfahān and is said to have married into the family of Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Qawām al-Dīn S̲h̲īrāzī. Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Maḥmūd ʿAlī, Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ibrāhīm’s grandfather, was a wealthy merchant of S̲h̲īrāz. After the death of Mīrzā Muḥammad, the kalāntar of S̲h̲īrāz in 1200/1786, D̲j̲aʿfar K̲h̲ān Zand made Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ibrāhīm kal…