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Neo-Confucianism

(1,375 words)

Author(s): Mittag, Achim
1. Concept and principlesThe term Neo-Confucianism refers in a strict sense to the Confucianism of the period from the Song to the Ming Dynasties (10th–17th centuries CE), and in a broader sense to the tradition of thought that originated in the transition from the late Tang to the Song Dynasty (9th/10th centuries), coalesced under the Song (960–1279), and dominated Chinese intellectual life until the end of the Ming Dynasty (mid-17th century), extending its influence across the whole of East Asia …
Date: 2020-04-06

Chinese, Overseas

(2,208 words)

Author(s): Mittag, Achim
1. OverviewThe term Overseas Chinese (Chinese huaqiao[11. 26–30]) denotes in general people of Chinese background who live outside China (the People’s Republic, Hong Kong, and Macao) and Taiwan, whether temporarily or permanently, or families that have done so over many generations, displaying sometimes strong ethnic and cultural assimilation and correspondingly loose ties with the Chinese homeland. The imprecision of the term is further exaggerated in that it refers to a variety of patterns of emigra…
Date: 2019-10-14

Grand Canal (China)

(818 words)

Author(s): Mittag, Achim
1. European perceptions and reporting In early modern perceptions and reporting of China, the Grand Canal, the longest artificial waterway in the world, was ranked second only to the Great Wall among manmade structures. Enlightenment-era historians affirmed that the canal “overshadows everything that one might call wondrous of this nature in Europe” [1. 17]. Marco Polo had already told of the wide, deep canals that connected rivers and lakes and that themselves seemed like a great river [4. 312]. Yet information about the Grand Canal in European reports was for the mo…
Date: 2019-10-14

Rhubarb

(896 words)

Author(s): Mittag, Achim
1. VegetableRhubarb, like sorrel and buckwheat, belongs to the Polygonaceae family of knotweeds. The well-known vegetable species,  Rheum rhabarbarum, the stalks of which are used to make compotes, pies, and jams, is distinct from “Chinese rhubarb” (or “ornamental rhubarb”),  Rheum palmatum. The latter is recognizable by its stalk, which grows up to 3 m in height, branches off at the inflorescences, and is surrounded by abundant clusters of flowers. Pharmaceutical use was made only of the roots [8. 841–851].Worldwide cultivation and consumption of Rheum rhabarbarum only bega…
Date: 2021-08-02

Mandarin

(942 words)

Author(s): Mittag, Achim
1. Concept The word “mandarin,” first attested in English and German ( Mandarin) around 1630, derives from the Portuguese  mandarim, which in turn goes back to the Malay menteri and Sanskrit mantrin (“minister,” “advisor”; from Sanskrit mantra, “advice”). In this sense, the Portuguese were the first to apply it to members of the Chinese bureaucratic class, and many other European languages adopted the usage. The term was later extended to other areas of the Chinese cultural sphere, especially the northern dialect of the formal spoken language “Mandarin [Chinese]” (Chinese  guanhua…
Date: 2019-10-14

Kaiser

(2,182 words)

Author(s): Pelizaeus, Ludolf | Mittag, Achim
1. Römischer Kaiser 1.1. Bezeichnung und EntwicklungDer röm. K. war das von den Kurfürsten auf Lebenszeit gemäß dem in der Goldenen Bulle (1356) festgelegten Mehrheitsprinzip gewählte Oberhaupt des Heiligen Römischen Reichs Deutscher Nation. Bis 1806 entstammten alle K. (mit Ausnahme des Wittelsbachers Karl Albrecht VII., reg. 1742–1745) aus dem Haus Habsburg(-Lothringen). Der K. stand in der Tradition des antiken röm. K.tums und begründete damit den Anspruch auf zeremoniellen Vorrang vor allen anderen Monarchen [8].Durch die enge Verbindung K. – Schutzherr der Chris…
Date: 2019-11-19

Taoismus

(2,008 words)

Author(s): Jülch, Thomas | Mittag, Achim
1. BegriffDer aus dem 19. Jh. stammende Begriff T. (bzw. nach der heutigen Pinyin-Umschrift Daoismus) wird in zwei Bedeutungen verwendet: Zum einen bezeichnet er die mit dem Weltweisen Laotse (Laozi, 6./5. Jh. v. Chr.) verknüpfte philosophische Lehre, die sich nach dem tao bzw. dao (chines.; »Weg«, vielfach auch als »Logos«, »Methode«, »Natur« oder »Sinn« übersetzt) benennt, zu der aber als spezifische Differenz zu anderen konkurrierenden philosophischen Schulrichtungen des antiken China (5.–3. Jh. v. Chr.) die zwei Konzepte der komplementären Urkräfte von Yin und Yang …
Date: 2019-11-19

Wirtschaftsethik

(4,416 words)

Author(s): Köster, Roman | Mittag, Achim
1. Europa 1.1. BegriffMit dem Begriff W. werden zum einen die dem individuellen Wirtschafts(= Ws.)-Handeln zugrunde liegenden Einstellungen benannt; zum anderen beschreibt er normative Vorstellungen vom richtigen und gerechten Wirtschaften. Die gesellschaftliche Normierung des Ws.-Handelns muss mit den tatsächlichen Praktiken nicht deckungsgleich sein; Divergenzen bieten Anlass für ws.ethische Reflexionen.Wie eine bestimmte W. in der Ökonomie wirksam wird, zeigt sich z. B. anhand der Frage nach dem Zusammenhang ws.ethischer Vorstellungen und der je…
Date: 2019-11-19

Economic ethics

(5,069 words)

Author(s): Köster, Roman | Mittag, Achim
1. Europe 1.1. TermThe term economic ethics refers, first, to the attitudes that underlie actions in the individual economy; secondly it describes normative notions of right and just economic activity. The setting of social standards in economic activity does not necessarily coincide with actual practices; divergences give cause for economic-ethical reflection.How a particular economic ethics becomes effective in the economy is evident on the basis of the question of the connection between economic-ethical notions and the relevant economic ord…
Date: 2019-10-14

Taoism

(2,154 words)

Author(s): Jülch, Thomas | Mittag, Achim
1. TermThe term “Taoism” (or “Daoism,” following the pinyin transliteration in general use today), which originated in the 19th century, has two senses. It denotes the philosophical teachings associated with the sage Lao Tzu (Laozi, Lao-Tze, 6th/5th centuries BCE), which are named after the  tao or  dao (Chinese “way,” often also translated as “logos,” “method,” “nature,” or “meaning”), but which – in contradistinction to other rival philosophical schools of ancient China (5th-3rd centuries bce) – also embrace the two concepts of the complementary principles of  yin and yang (…
Date: 2022-11-07

Emperor

(2,670 words)

Author(s): Pelizaeus, Ludolf | Mittag, Achim
1. Holy Roman Emperor 1.1. Term and developmentThe Holy Roman Emperor was the supreme head of the Holy Roman Empire, elected for life by the college of electors, in accordance with the majority principle laid down in the Golden Bull (1356). All emperors until 1806, with the exception of the Wittelsbach Karl Albrecht VII (1742-1745), were of the House of  Habsburg (or later Habsburg-Lorraine). The office stood in the tradition of the ancient Roman Empire, and thus gave rise to a claim to precedence in protocol over all other monarchs [8].The close association between the office of …
Date: 2019-10-14

Tribut

(4,094 words)

Author(s): Damler, Daniel | Mittag, Achim | König, Hans-Joachim
1. Europa 1.1. Begriff und VölkerrechtslehreDer Begriff T. (von lat. tributum; »Beitrag«, »Abgabe«) war in der Frühen Nz. – entsprechend der heterogenen Verwendung in den antiken lat. Quellen – zur Umschreibung verschiedener Sachverhalte gebräuchlich. Zedlers Universal-Lexicon (1745) nennt zunächst den allgemeinen Wortsinn von »Anlage, Schatzung, Land-Steuer«, dann auch den Hinweis auf die Herkunft des Begriffs aus dem röm. Staatsrecht: T. als eine v. a. zur Bewältigung von Notsituationen vom röm. Bürger erhobene Abgabe [1]. Geläufig war der Terminus zudem in der Be…
Date: 2019-11-19

Singspiel

(2,501 words)

Author(s): Busch-Salmen, Gabriele | Shan, Kunqin | Mittag, Achim
1. Europa 1.1. BegriffDie Bezeichnung S. (»singets-Spil«) wurde im 16. Jh. von Jakob Ayrer d. Ä. (angeregt von den Aufführungen gastierender engl. Komödianten) für seine volkstümlich-komischen Stücke mit Musik- und Liedeinlagen geprägt. Der Terminus stand bis zur zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jh.s im dt. Sprachgebiet ohne eine eindeutige ästhetische Definition allgemein für musikal.-theatralische Genres. S. wurde zum vielschichtig schillernden Synonym für Oper oder Operette (vgl. Unterhaltungsmusik), Posse, Komödie bis zum Lust- oder Trauerspiel (Tragödie) und …
Date: 2021-07-29

Ostasiatische Gesellschaften

(7,781 words)

Author(s): Mittag, Achim | Mathias, Regine | Eggert, Marion
1. EinleitungDer heute in China, Japan und Korea gängige, spezifisch erst seit de…
Date: 2019-11-19

East Asian societies

(8,545 words)

Author(s): Mittag, Achim | Mathias, Regine | Eggert, Marion
1. IntroductionThe term for “society” now (and in this specific sense only since the second half of the 19th century) current in  China, Japan, andKorea (pronounced in Chinese shehui, Japanese shakai, Korean sahoe), consists of the two Chinese characters for “earth altar” ( she) and “meeting” ( hui). The reference to the “earth altar” where the local deity of a village was venerated …
Date: 2019-10-14

Singspiel

(2,712 words)

Author(s): Busch-Salmen, Gabriele | Mittag, Achim | Shan, Kunqin
1. Europe 1.1. ConceptThe German Singspiel (sung play) was coined in the 16th century by Jakob Ayrer the Elder (inspired by the performances of visiting English Comedian players) for his own comedic popular works, which incorporated passages of music and songs. Until the second half of the 18th century, the term was used in a general sense, and without clear aesthetic definition, to denote genres of musical theater. Singspiel became a versatile and multifaceted synonym for opera, operetta (see Light music), posse, comedy,  Lustspiel, or  Trauerspiel (Tragedy), and proved a serviceable concept for alternatives to court opera. 1.2. DevelopmentOnly large residences could afford the outlay required to put on prestigious productions of Italian opera, French  opéra comique, or French ballet. Citizens and smaller courts therefore turned to  Singspiel as a form of staged musical performance closer to spoken theate…
Date: 2022-08-17

Tribute

(4,346 words)

Author(s): Damler, Daniel | Mittag, Achim | König, Hans-Joachim
1. Europe 1.1. Definition and international lawIn the early modern period, the term tribute (from Latin  tributum; “contribution,” “levy”) was used to describe a variety of situations, reflecting its heterogeneous use in classical Latin sources. Zedler’s Universal-Lexicon (1745) cites first the general meaning  Anlage, Schatzung, Land-Steuer (outlay, taxation, land tax), then a reference to the origin of the term in Roman constitutional law: tribute as levy imposed on Roman citizens primarily to meet the demands of an emergency [1]. The term was also common in its bi…
Date: 2022-11-07

East Asian economy

(6,801 words)

Author(s): Mittag, Achim | Schottenhammer, Angela | Mathias, Regine
1. IntroductionEver since Marco Polo's travel journal in the Late Middle Ages, China has been seen in Europe as a land of flourishing trade and great wealth. Even in the mid-18th century, it was still characterized as an “earthly paradise” [1. vi]: “Trade in China is done in gold, silver, precious stones, porcelain, silk, calico, spices, rhubarb and other apothecaries' wares, tea, lacquered objects, and the like. The trade among the provinces is so great that they have no need of selling their wares outside” (“Der Handel in China besteht in Golde, Silber, Edelgesteinen, Porcellan, Seide, Kattun, Gewürzen, Rhabarber und andern Apothekerwaaren, Thee, lackirten Sachen und dergleichen. Der Handel der Provinzen unter einander ist dermaßen gro…
Date: 2019-10-14

Staatenbildung, außereuropäische

(11,979 words)

Author(s): Bley, Helmut | König, Hans-Joachim | Conermann, Stephan | Mittag, Achim | Cwik, Christian
1. Allgemein 1.1. Eigenständige Entwicklungen Die S., wie sie sich in Zentral- und Westeuropa vollzog [3] und wie sie Max Weber zu einem idealtypischen Muster zusammenfasste (Staat; Herrschaft) [1], das sich spätestens im 19. Jh. in seinen Haup
Date: 2019-11-19
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