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[German Version] In civil and canon law, publication (or promulgation) denotes the official public announcement of legal acts, especially legal norms. The term promulgation is generally preferred in Catholic canon law. Publication presupposes execution by the responsible body and is required for the law to take effect. The purpose of publication is to make it possible for those affected to know the law’s content; it puts the legal act into effect independently of de facto knowledge. The media in which norms are published are official journals and gazettes, for example the Bundesgesetz…

[German Version] Legal rights and duties apply primarily to individuals (“natural persons”; Person: III). In abbreviation, the law also grants organized entities the capacity to be addressed by rights and duties (legal capacity). If legal capacity is granted in relation to all other legally competent subjects, the law creates a juridical person. Lacking a natural capacity for acting, juridical persons “act” through their institutions. State law creates juridical persons under civil law (such as re…

[German Version] The right of appeal, in current juristic terminology, denotes the possibility made available by law of obtaining judicial review of a court decision. In a broader sense, the right of appeal includes all ¶ procedural rights to the review of official decisions (including non-judicial ones; legal redress). The history of law and jurisprudence recognizes a multiplicity of rights of appeal. The model of an orderly right of appeal based on factual and judicial scrutiny goes back to the appellation of Roman and canon law…

[German Version] I. Terminology – II. Historical Development – III. Content and Function I. Terminology Church-state agreements (Ger. Kirchenverträge) are agreements between the state and a Protestant church. Along with agreements between the state and the Catholic Church (Concordats) and other religious bodies they constitute one source of modern law governing church and state. II. Historical Development These agreements have been possible in Germany ever since the Weimar Constitution of 1919 released the Protestant regional churches from …

[German Version] is the – especially judicial – assertion of subjective rights, i.e. of individual, legally guaranteed claims to the realization of an interest. Legal protection is an essential feature of the rule of law. The legal protection of the claims established by civil law has always been a central aspect of judiciary. Legal protection against governmental actions only became a practicable legal construction from the second half of the19th century with the dogmatic conception of public leg…

[German Version] viewed the relationship between church and state as an equal partnership between two sovereign powers (Violence: IV). It is rooted in corresponding teachings on the relationship between empire and papacy, and was invoked by Roman Catholic doctrine in the 19th century as an argument against the modern state's claim to sovereignty (in its configuration as secular supremacy). After 1945, if only temporarily, it once again attained a h…

[German Version] The legal capacity under church law is the ability to be addressed as a subject of rights and duties by the norms of church law. It neither presupposes nor necessarily follows from legal capacity under state law (Legal capacity of the church). The intrinsic criterion for the legal capacity under church law is involvement in the mission and promise of the church. It manifests itself in baptism (Matt 28:19–20: “Go” – “I am with you”). People thus acquire the legal capacity under chu…

[English Version] I. Kirchengeschichtlich Als Z. bez. man die teilweise oder gänzliche Unterdrückung von Schriften oder Druckwerken aufgrund vorgängiger (Vorzensur) oder nachheriger (Nachzensur) kirchl. oder behördlicher Überprüfung. – Bereits im NT werden Irrlehren verworfen (Tit 3,9f.), die Ausbildung des ntl. Kanons setzte einen Prozeß von Z. voraus. Häresien wurden in der Alten Kirche und im MA von Synoden und Bischöfen verdammt, regelrechte Bücherzensur wurde nur in Einzelfällen v.a. durch Uni…

[English Version] I. Katholisch Kirchl. W. ist die Möglichkeit, bei einer Wahl mitwählen oder gewählt werden bzw. unter verschiedenen Möglichkeiten eigenverantwortlich entscheiden zu können (s. Kirchenwahlen). Das aktive W. kann sich aus der Kirchengliedschaft herleiten (cc.96 und 208 CIC/1983; vgl. c.536: Pfarrpastoral- bzw. Pfarrgemeinderat; c.537: Pfarrvermögensverwaltungsrat) oder in bes. Rechtstiteln gründen, wie der Zugehörigkeit zum Kardinalskollegium (c.349; Kardinal), Konsultorenkollegium …

[German Version] I. History and Practical Theology – II. Law I. History and Practical Theology Confirmation, understood here in a narrower sense as a rite in Protestant churches, has been interpreted and shaped differently. Today, it is common in almost all Protestant churches, even in families that are rather distanced from the church. The problems of confirmation already appeared in the Reformation period when confirmation began to develop as an independent rite in Protestant ch…

[German Version] I. Law – II. Social Ethics I. Law A culture state is a state that takes responsibility not only for the security and freedom of its citizens, but also their cultural concerns (Culture), nota bene, for ¶ the sake of its own cultural conditions. Legally, the culture state expresses itself in part in determinations of the objectives of state (clearly in art. 3 I 1 of the 1946 Bavarian Constitution: “Bavaria is a legal, cultural and social state”), otherwise in the establishment of the state educat…

[German Version] (Jurisdiction/Power of Jurisdiction) I. Catholic Church – II. Protestant Churches. I. Catholic Church The Codex Iuris Canonici (1983) ( CIC 1983) lays out the procedures of ecclesiastical trials in Book VII. The new code had a twofold purpose: to simplify the structures and procedures of the tribunals and to expedite trials. 1. By virtue of its own – i.e. divine – and exclusive authority, the church claims jurisdiction in litigation concerning spiritual and related matters – worship, ¶ doctrine, ecclesiastical assets and offices, violation of ecclesiastic…

[German Version] I. Church History – II. Canon Law I. Church History Censorship is the partial or total suppression of written or printed works based on prior or subsequent ecclesiastical or governmental examination. The NT already rejects false teaching (Tit 3:9f.), and the development of the NT canon presupposes a process of censorship. In the Early Church and the Middle Ages, heresy was condemned by synods and bishops, but actual censorship of books was practiced only in is…

[German Version] I. Catholic Church Voting rights give the opportunity to vote or be elected in an election, or under various circumstances to make a decision on one’s own responsibility (Church elections). Active elective rights can be based on membership in the church ( CIC/1983 cc. 96, 208; cf. c. 536: pastoral council; c. 537: finance committee) or on special legal entitlements such as membership in the college of cardinals (c. 349; Cardinal), the college of consultors (cc. 413 §2, 421 §1, 424) or cathedral chapter (c. 502 §3), the co…

[German Version] I. Catholicism – II. Protestantism I. Catholicism Unlike private devotions, the official liturgy is performed in the name of the church by persons lawfully deputed (clergy and laity) and in a form approved by ecclesiastical authority (cf. CIC/1983 c. 834 §2; CCEO c. 668 §1). Therefore liturgy requires legal standards, which are the responsibility of the Apostolic See, the diocesan bishops, and the Bishops' conferences (c. 838). This is also the context of punitive and disciplinary measures. The CIC contains canons governing the celebration of the Eucharis…

[German Version] I. General Church History – II. Europe – III. Latin America I. General Church History Laicism (from Gk λαος/ laós, “people”; Laity) originated in 19th-century France ( laïcisme) as an aggressively anticlerical concept; originally it proposed absolute separation of the state, secular culture, and the church (esp. the Catholic Church; Church and state), opposing all public influence on the part of the church. Its intellectual roots were in the Enlightenment and especially the French Revolution – although it r…

[German Version] I. German Law Along with artistic freedom, Basic Law art. 5 § 3 guarantees freedom of “scholarship, research, and teaching.” The association of freedom of teaching with scholarship and research shows that the guarantee of the Basic Law applies only to scholarly teaching, i.e. teaching that presents the findings of one’s own research (and examines critically the findings of others). Freedom of teaching thus relates (albeit not exclusively) to teaching in public and private universitie…

[English Version] I. Biblisch 1.  In Israel und Juda. Vom 10. bis ins 8.Jh. v.Chr. ist im Vergleich zu Ägypten und Mesopotamien nur mit einer rudimentären V. zu rechnen. Die Staatseinnahmen wurden im wesentlichen vom königlichen Krongut erwirtschaftet, das noch z.Z. Hiskias die Festungen verproviantierte (Königsstempel). Das Krongut unterstand dem Majordomo ('šr ‘l hbjt; 1Kön 4,6 u. ö.; epigraphisch: ReRö II, 113f.; in einem Privathaushalt: Gen 43,16 u. ö.). Die Beamtenbez. »Knecht« (‘bd, »Sklave«) des …

[English Version] I. Geschichtlich Der Begriff S. (von griech. συ´n̆οδος/sýnodos, »Zusammenkunft, zus. auf dem Weg sein«) kann bei der altkirchl. und ma. Entwicklung nicht vom Begriff Konzil getrennt werden. Nur im Blick auf den Protestantismus des 19./20.Jh. ist eine Isolierung sinnvoll, weil hier – vorbereitet seit dem 16.Jh. – die S. ein verfassungsrechtlich neuartiges Phänomen darstellt (Kirchenverfassung: IV.,2.; V.,1., c). Zu dessen Vorgesch. gehören die ma. Diözesansynode (als Fortentwicklung der…

[English Version] I. Neues Testament Sozialstrukturen, die ältere Personen mit Aufgaben für die Gemeinschaft betraut sehen, sind im antiken Mittelmeerraum weit verbreitet. Nach der Erinnerung Israels erhielten sie in dessen Frühgesch. bes. Bedeutung (Num 11–1Sam 30,26ff.; 2Sam 2,4; 12,17; Älteste: Altes Testament). Die Betrauung mit regionalen und lokalen Rechtsfunktionen hielt sich durch (gespiegelt in Dtn 19,12; vgl.11QT XLII 13f.), wenn auch oft abgeschwächt. Um die ntl. Zeit konnten das Synhedri…

[German Version] I. History As it developed in the Early Church and the Middle Ages, the term synod (from Gk σύνοδος/ sýnodos, “assembly, being together on the way”) cannot be separated from the term council. Only in 19th- and 20th-century Protestantism is a separate treatment warranted; in that context – with roots going back to the 16th century – the synod represents a new constitutional phenomenon (Church polity: IV, 2; V, 1.c). Its antecedents include medieval diocesan synods (as extensions of the provincial syn…

[German Version] I. New Testament Social structures that entrusted older individuals with functions on behalf of the community were widespread in the ancient Mediterranean world. In the memory of Israel, they were particularly important in the early history of the people (Num 11– 1 Sam 30:26ff.; 2 Sam 2:4; 12:17; Elders in the Old Testament). Their entrustment with local and regional judicial functions continued (reflected in Deut 19:12; cf. 11QT XLII 13f.) albeit often in diminished form. In the Ne…

[German Version] I. Church History – II. Church Law I. Church History Within the church's general duty to confront heresies, there has been, since the time of the Early Church, a particular responsibility to counteract heresies held by those that hold church offices. Until the late Middle Ages, this task was fulfilled by synodal or episcopal, and ultimately, papal decree – in the West, after a p…

[German Version] I. Bible – II. History – III. Law – IV. Church Administration – V. Ethics I. Bible 1. In Israel and Judah . From the 10th into the 8th century bce, only a rudimentary administration can be assumed in Israel and Judah in comparison to Egypt and Mesopotamia. State income was basically produced by the royal demesne, which at the time of Hezekiah supplied provisions for fortresses (royal seal). The royal demesne was under the control of a major-domo or steward ( 'šr ʿl hbyt; 1 Kgs 4:6, passim; epigraphic evidence in ReRö II, 113f.; in a private household: Gen 43:16, passim). The desi…

[English Version] I. Katholisch Mit dem Begriff Weihe (W.) werden unterschiedliche liturgische und kirchenrechtliche Termini wiedergegeben: ordinatio, dedicatio, consecratio, benedictio. Dies zeigt, daß der Inhalt des Weiheverständnisses weit gespannt ist. Gemeinsam ist die Glaubensüberzeugung, daß ein Objekt der irdischen Wirklichkeit in bes. Weise mit Gott und dem Heilswirken in Christus in Verbindung steht. Diese Verbindung ist schöpfungstheol. angelegt, sie wird durch eine Weihehandlung (Wh.) s…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Old Testament – III. Judaism – IV. New Testament – V. Church History – VI. Ethics – VII. Law I. Religious Studies As a solemn affirmation of a statement, an oath takes its religious quality from the underlying belief in the power of words to effect a blessing or curse (Blessing and curse). Therefore the early phenomenology of religion classed oaths with invective, curses, etc. as words of consecration: those who swear oaths identify themselves with their words and are “consecrated…

[German Version] I. Law 1. Catholicism. Within the total structure of the church, the teaching office is the court of final authority for preserving, transmitting and interpreting the faith. The teaching office stands under the Word of God (Vatican II, DV 10: magisterium non supra verbum Dei, sed eidem ministrat), and perceives its task as constantly involved in interaction with the other ecclesiastical witnesses ( loci theologici) to the Word of God. Consonance with all other courts and organs of the church is shown in the church’s reception (II) of decisions…

[German Version] I. Catholic Church – II. Orthodox Church – III. Protestantism – IV. Canon Law I. Catholic Church The term consecration is used to render various liturgical and canon law terms: ordinatio, dedicatio, consecratio, benedictio. This demonstrates that the content of the notion of consecration extends broadly. Common is the conviction of faith that an object of earthly reality is connected in a particular way with God and the saving work in Christ. This connection is related to the theology of …

[English Version] I. Religionswissenschaftlich T./I. müssen im Gegenüber zu u.a. Respekt, Koexistenz, Indifferenz, Akzeptanz und Vorurteil profiliert werden und korrespondieren im öfftl. Raum mit dem Vorhandensein bzw. Nichtvorhandensein der Religionsfreiheit. Sie entspringen dem Anspruch exklusiver rel. Wahrheit bzw. kollidieren mit ihm. T. bedarf der Einsicht in die Irrtumsfähigkeit und Grenze menschlicher (Glaubens-)Erkenntnis, I. verweigert diese Einsicht. Unterschieden werden können (nach Gerl…

[English Version] I. Altes TestamentDie v.a. aus prot. Perspektive unternommene Suche nach Vorformen der O. im AT erscheint wenig aussichtsreich, da sich in der HB keine direkten Äquivalente zur christl. O. als öfftl. Beauftragung von Amtsträgern durch die Gemeinde finden. Entsprechende Untersuchungen beschränken sich vorwiegend auf den atl.-jüd. Hintergrund der frühchristl. O. (Lohse). Ntl. Berichte über die Einsetzung in Gemeindeämter (Apg 6,1–6; 13,1–3; 2Tim 1,6f.; s.u. II.) und rabb. Stellen zu…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies Tolerance and intolerance must be defined in terms of their relationship to respect, coexistence, indifference, acceptance, and prejudice. In the public context, they ¶ correspond to the presence or absence of freedom of religion. They originate in the claim to exclusive religious truth or else collide with it. Tolerance requires insight into the human ability to err and into the limits of human cognition with regard to faith, whereas intolerance rejects this insight. Following Gerlitz,…

[German Version] I. Old Testament – II. New Testament – III. Church History – IV. Dogmatics – V. Liturgy – VI. Practical Theology – VII. Law and Legal History – VIII. Judaism I. Old Testament The search, mainly from a Protestant perspective, for antecedents of ordination in the Old Testament does not seem very promising, since no direct equivalent to Christian ordination as public commissioning of office-bearers by the community is to be found in the Hebrew Bible. Relevant research is mainly limited to the OT Jewish background of…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Old Testament – III. Early Judaism – IV. New Testament – V. Church History – VI. Systematic Theology – VII. Practical Theology – VIII. Law – IX. Missiology I. Religious Studies Over the course of history, the word office has been used for a wide variety of functions. In every case, however, what is peculiar to the term is that it refers to an activity independent of the unique personal characteristics of the officeholder. In the context of religious studies, what first comes to mind is the office…