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Lakhmids

(166 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] (Arabic Banū Laḫm). Kings of the Arabian tribal confederacy of the Tanūḫ (2nd quarter of 3rd cent. - early 7th cent. AD). The seat of the L. was al-Ḥīra, a caravan centre in south-western Iraq, south of Kerbela. As vassals of the Persian Sassanids, the L. controlled the tribes of the Arabian peninsula, and joined the Sassanids' war against Rome, later against Byzantium and her Syrian allies ( Palmyra, Ghassanids). Some L. were Nestorian Christians ( Nestorianism); through their in…

Dura-Europus

(288 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Sassanids | Syria | Christianity | Zenobia | Commerce | Hellenistic states | Limes City on the west bank of the middle Euphrates (Arab. aṣ-Ṣāliḥiya, south-eastern Syria). D.-E. was founded c. 300 BC by Macedonian colonists as one of the Seleucid fortresses for securing links to the Euphrates. After the Parthian conquest c. 141 BC it rose to become a military station and important staging post on the caravan route to Palmyra. Trajan's advances against Mesopotamia restored the status of D.-E. as a Roman garrison city on the Syrian li…

Kangavar

(101 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] (Arab. Kangāwar, Qaṣr al-Luṣūṣ, Pers. Kinkiwar). City on the West Iranian high plateau between Hamadān and Kermānšāh. Preceding settlements evolved on the trading route between Mesopotamia and East Iran from the 5th millennium BC (Godīntappe, Seh Gāvī). A sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Anāhita existed in K. (Konkobar in Isidore of Charax) from Parthian times (2nd cent. BC). Leisten, Thomas (Princeton) Bibliography G. LeStrange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, 1889, 188f. S. Kāmbakhsh Fard, Les fouilles de Kangavar, in: Bāstān-shenāsī va hunar-i …

Eduma

(49 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] (Ἐδουμά; Edoumá, modern Dūmā). According to the Onomasticon of Eusebius (255,74) a settlement in the region of Acrabattene in Transjordan southeast of Neapolis (Nablūs). Leisten, Thomas (Princeton) Bibliography S. Herrmann, Die Operationen Pharao Schoschenks I. im östlichen Ephraim, in: Zschr. des deutschen Palästina-Vereins 80, 1964, 61, 67ff.

Ancyra

(470 words)

Author(s): Strobel, Karl (Klagenfurt) | Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
This item can be found on the following maps: Sassanids | Theatre | Byzantium | Zenobia | | Commerce | Hellenistic states | Hellenistic states | Asia Minor | Limes | Pergamum | Pilgrimage | Pompeius | Patricius | Rome | Rome (Ἄνκυρα; Ánkyra). City and fortress in  Galatia, modern Ankara. Anchors feature in legends, explaining the origin of the name (Paus. 1,4,5; Steph. Byz. s. v. A.; anchor as the city's symbol). Its origins lay in the prehistoric/ Hittite period; a Phrygian centre from the 8th to the 6th cents. BC (foundation myth: Paus…

Kerbela

(194 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] (Arabic Karbalāʾ). Shiite pilgrimage centre in Iraq, situated c. 95 km south-west of Baghdad; until right through to the 20th cent. the final station of caravan routes from Iran and the starting-point for Persian Mecca pilgrims. The name K. describes the palm gardens that surround the funerary sanctuary and the town of Mašhad al-Ḥusain. A town Kerbelā is already mentioned in the OT (Dan 3:21), but Shiite lexicographers explain K. as a combination of Arabic karb (mourning) and balāʾ (disaster). K. became significant for the Shiite Islamic world through the m…

Bostra

(336 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Sassanids | Syria | Theatre | Christianity | Zenobia | | Coloniae | Legio | Limes Small town on the southern edge of the Syrian basalt desert (Ḥaurān). The modern name Buṣrā corresponds with the Nabataean and Palmyrenian version BṢR (‘fortress’). B. was a settlement from the early Bronze Age and, in the 2nd. millennium BC, had close relations with Egypt because of its role as a caravanserai and a staging-post on the road to northern Syria and to the Red Sea (…

Mariamme

(392 words)

Author(s): Bringmann, Klaus (Frankfurt/Main) | Wandrey, Irina (Berlin) | Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] [1] Granddaughter of Aristobulus II. and Iohannes Hyrcanus II. (Hebrew Mirjam; the form Mariamne in Fr. Hebbel's drama is a corruption from later MSS). Granddaughter of Aristobulus [2] II. and Iohannes Hyrcanus [3] II. Born c. 53/52 BC, M. was a celebrated beauty. Married to Herod ( Herodes [1]) the Great, she became involved in the intrigues and conflicts between Hasmoneans and Herodeans. In 29 Herod had her executed on suspicion of unfaithfulness based on the calumnies of his sister Salome (Jos. Ant. Iud. 15,218-236). Bringmann, Klaus (Frankfurt/Main) Bibliography A…

Damascus

(1,153 words)

Author(s): Klengel, Horst (Berlin) | Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
This item can be found on the following maps: Writing | Syria | Theatre | Caesar | Christianity | | Coloniae | Alexander | Commerce | Hasmonaeans | Hellenistic states | India, trade with | Mesopotamia | Phoenicians, Poeni | Pilgrimage [German version] A. Ancient Orient Oasis situated on the eastern edge of Antilebanon, watered by the undrained Barada, first mentioned in lists of Syrian towns of the pharaohs Thutmosis III and Amenophis III ( tmsq, Tamasqu) and then in the  Amarna letters ( Di/Dumašqu). In the 13th cent. BC too, D. was under Egyptian control. At the turn of the…

Baalbek

(276 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Syria | Theatre | Coloniae | Asia Minor Town in the Biqa plain between Lebanon and Antilebanon, located at an elevation of 1150 m, 64 km north-east of Beirut. The town's name was changed to Heliopolis (Str. 753; Plin. HN 5,80), probably because the Ptolemies of Alexandria identified the god ‘Baal (Haddad) of Biqa’ with the Egyptian sun god Ra/Helios. After the temporary rulership of the Seleucids (2nd cent. BC), B. became the cult centre for the Itu…

Rusafa

(220 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Pilgrimage ( Ruṣāfa; in the Byzantine era also Sergiopolis). Ruins in central Syria, c. 180 km east of Aleppo and 35 south of the Euphrates. Roman limes fortress (Limes [VI D], with map) beginning in the 1st cent. BC. In Late Antiquity, the town, where the officer Sergius suffered martyrdom under Diocletianus (cf. [1]), became the central pilgrimage destination for Christian Arab tribes of the Levant and Mesopotamia. R. had churches from the 5th cent. AD on, including t…

Gaza

(514 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton) | Knauf, Ernst Axel (Berne)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Egypt | Syria | Zenobia | Alexander | Commerce | Hasmonaeans | India, trade with | Arabia | Phoenicians, Poeni | Pilgrimage | Pompeius | Egypt (Arabic Ġazza, Hebrew Azzā, from Semitic ǧzz, ‘being thorny’). From  Thutmosis III (1457 BC) to Ramses IV (mid 12th cent. BC) an Egyptian administrative centre in southern Palestine [1], under the Ramessids ‘the town of Canaan’, short ‘Canaan’ (Κάδυτις, Hdt. 2,159; 3,5); under  Ramses II also the ‘town of Ramses in Canaan’. Taken over…

Bambyce

(244 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Syria | Zenobia | Limes (Βαμβύκη; Bambýkē). City in North Syria, 78 km north-east of Aleppo at the confluence of the Sadjur and the Euphrates. B. (Str. 16,2,7) was since Seleucus I known as the Syrian Ἱεράπολις, Hierápolis (Str. 16,1,27, Ptol. 5,14,10), but at the same time also as Mabbog (Plin. HN 5, 81) with the Graecized form, Μέμπετξε (Leo Diaconus, 165,22; from which the Arabic Manbiǧ). The position, generally identified with the Assyrian settlement Nappigi/Nampigi, possesse…

Eduma

(45 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[English version] (Ἐδουμά, h. Dūmā). Nach dem Onomasticon des Eusebios (255,74) Ort der Landschaft Akrabattene im Westjordanland südöstl. von Neapolis (Nablūs). Leisten, Thomas (Princeton) Bibliography S. Herrmann, Die Operationen Pharao Schoschenks I. im östl. Ephraim, in: Zschr. des dt. Palästina-Vereins 80, 1964, 61, 67ff.

Rusafa

(204 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[English version] Dieser Ort ist auf folgenden Karten verzeichnet: Pilgerschaft ( Ruṣāfa; in byz. Zeit auch Sergiupolis). Ruine in Zentralsyrien, ca. 180 km östl. von Aleppo und 35 km südl. des Euphrat. Röm. Limesfestung (Limes VI. D., mit Karte) seit dem 1. Jh. v. Chr. Der Ort, an dem unter Diocletianus der Offizier Sergios das Martyrium erlitt (vgl. [1]), wurde in der Spätant. zum zentralen Pilgerzentrum christl. arabischer Stämme der Levante und Mesopotamiens. Seit dem 5. Jh. n. Chr. besaß R. Kirchen, d…

Kaisareia

(308 words)

Author(s): Strobel, Karl (Klagenfurt) | Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
Dieser Ort ist auf folgenden Karten verzeichnet: Alexandros | Byzantion, Byzanz | Christentum | Hellenistische Staatenwelt | Hellenistische Staatenwelt | Kleinasien | Limes | Limes | Pompeius | Roma | Roma | Sāsāniden | Syrien | Zenobia | Straßen (Καισάρεια, lat. Caesarea, iran. oder keilschriftl. Mazaka). Hauptort von Kappadokia (Strab. 12,2,7-9), h. Kayseri. [English version] I. Frühgeschichte bis römische Zeit K. folgte dem naheliegenden alten Zentrum Kaniš (Kültepe; Kleinasien), das aber in hell. und röm. Zeit noch von Bed. war. Der einheimische Name Mazaka ist bis in byz.…

Lachmiden

(143 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[English version] (arab. Banū Laḫm). Könige des arab. Stammesverbandes der Tanūḫ (2. Viertel 3. Jh. - Anf. 7. Jh. n.Chr). Sitz der L. war al-Ḥīra, ein Karawanenzentrum im sw Irak, südl. von Kerbela. Als Vasallen der pers. Sāsāniden überwachten die L. die Stämme der arab. Halbinsel und beteiligten sich am Kampf der Sāsāniden gegen Rom, später gegen Byzanz und ihre syr. Verbündeten (Palmyra, Ghassaniden). Einige L. waren nestorianische Christen (Nestorianismus); durch sie wurde Ḥīra ein Zentrum des Ch…

Baalbek

(248 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[English version] Dieser Ort ist auf folgenden Karten verzeichnet: Coloniae | Kleinasien | Syrien | Theater Ort in der Biqa-Ebene zw. Libanon und Antilibanon in 1150 m Höhe, 64 km nordöstl. von Beirut. Die Umbenennung von B. in Heliopolis (Strab. 753; Plin. nat. 5,80) geschah wohl im Zusammenhang mit der Identifizierung des “Baal (Haddad) der Biqa” mit dem ägypt. Sonnengott Ra/Helios durch die Ptolemäer von Alexandreia. Nach vorübergehender Herrschaft der Seleukiden (2.Jh. v.Chr.) wurde B. Kultzentrum der it…

Damghan

(158 words)

Author(s): Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
[English version] (Dāmġān). Stadt in Iran an den Südausläufern des Alborz, 342 km östl. von Teheran an der Straße nach Nīšāpūr. Der Name entstand möglicherweise aus Kontraktion von Deh-e Moġān (Dorf der Magi). Prähist. Vorläufer D.s ist der Tepe Ḥeṣār mit Schichten zwischen 5. Jt. und frühem 2. Jt.v.Chr. Nach einem Hiatus von 1500 Jahren wurde D. die Hauptsiedlung der parth. und sāsānidischen Provinz Qūmes, Sitz eines der hl. Staatsfeuer (ātaxš-ī xwarišnīh, “Feuer ohne Nahrung”, daher Zoroastrier …

Berytos

(480 words)

Author(s): Finkbeiner, Uwe (Tübingen) | Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
Dieser Ort ist auf folgenden Karten verzeichnet: Ägäische Koine | Coloniae | Handel | Hasmonäer | Kolonisation | Phönizier, Punier | Pompeius | Syrien | Straßen (Βηρυτός). [English version] A. Phönizische Zeit B., das h. Beirut, ist in den Amarna-Briefen und in Texten aus Ugarit für das 14. bzw. 13.Jh. v.Chr. als Beruta und in den Annalen Asarhaddons für das 7.Jh. v.Chr. als Birû [1. 48] erwähnt. Eine Identifizierung mit Baurad in den Ebla-Texten ist umstritten [2. 68]. Die Quellen zeigen, daß das kanaanäische B. im 2.Jt. v.Chr. unter dem Einfluß von Byblos un…
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