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Rijswijker Klausel

(290 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Rijswijker Klausel, Bez. der Regelung des Art.4 des Friedensvertrages von Rijswijk (bei Den Haag), mit dem am 29.9./30.10.1697 der Pfälzische Krieg (seit 1688) endete. Der Frieden zwang Ludwig XIV., alle seit 1679 erlangten Réunionsgebiete zu restituieren und die seit 1688 militärisch besetzte Kurpfalz (nicht das 1681 annektierte Straßburg) zurückzugeben. Art.4 garantierte, entgegen der Normaljahrsregelung (annus normalis) des Westfälischen Friedens, den kath. Konfessionsstand in…

Richelieu

(598 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Richelieu, Jean Armand Du Plessis Duc de (9.9.1585 Paris – 4.12.1642 ebd.), franz. Staatsmann und Kardinal (1622), wurde 1607 Dr. theol. der Sorbonne, 1608 mit päpstl. Dispens wegen fehlenden kanonischen Alters Bf. von Luçon und nahm als solcher an der Generalständeversammlung von 1614 teil, in deren Schlußsitzung er eine Rede hielt und die Politik der Regentin Maria von Medici unterstützte, die ihn 1616 zum Minister im Staatsrat berief. Nach Beginn der Herrschaft Ludwigs XIII. (1617) …

Napoleon I.

(560 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] (Napolione Buonaparte; 15.8.1769 Ajaccio, Korsika – 5.5.1821 St. Helena), Kaiser der Franzosen. 1785 franz. Artillerieleutnant, 1793 der »Bergpartei« um M. Robespierre verbunden und nach der Rückeroberung von Toulon (Dezember 1793) zum General befördert, wurde N. nach dem 9. Thermidor (27.7.1794) vorübergehend aus der Armee entlassen. Nach der Niederschlagung des royalistischen Aufstandes in Paris (5.10.1795) 1796 Oberbefehlshaber der Italienarmee, führten seine Siege zum Frieden…

Retz

(146 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Retz, Jean-François-Paul de Gondi de (getauft 20.9.1613 Montmirail, Département Marne – 24.8.1679 Paris), nach Theologiestudium 1644 Koadjutor, 1652 Kardinal, 1654 Erzbf. von Paris, 1662 Abt von St. Denis. R. war polit. Gegner J. Mazarins und Ludwigs XIV. Er organisierte den Aufstand der Fronde 1648–1653, wurde 1652 verhaftet, konnte aus der Haft heraus den Erzbischofsstuhl von Paris erlangen, wurde zur Demission gezwungen (von Papst Innozenz X. nicht anerkannt), konnte 1654 fliehen …

Simultaneum

(520 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] . S. bez. im weiteren Sinne 1. das gleichberechtigte (Parität) oder für eine Seite erzwungene Zusammenleben zweier oder mehrerer Konfessionen in einem Territorium und im engeren Sinne 2. die gemeinsame Nutzung kirchl. Einrichtungen, v.a. von Kirchengebäuden, durch Angehörige zweier oder mehrerer Konfessionen. Unter 1. fällt das durch die Rijswijker Klausel (1697) begründete Nebeneinander von Reformierten, Lutheranern und Katholiken in der Kurpfalz und in den restituierten Réunion…

Werkmeister

(402 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Werkmeister, Leonhard (1808: v.; Klostername: Benedikt Maria; 22.10.1745 Füssen – 16.7.1823 Stuttgart), trat 1764/65 in das Benediktinerkloster Neresheim ein, studierte in Benediktbeuern und wurde 1769 zum Priester geweiht. 1770 Novizenmeister, lehrte W. 1772–1774 und 1778–1780 Philos. in Freising und wurde 1780 in Neresheim Leiter der Studien, bis er 1784 von dem kath. Herzog Karl Eugen von Württemberg als Hofprediger berufen wurde. 1791 verließ er den Orden und wurde 1796 (–1819) …

Spifame

(161 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Spifame, Jacques (1502 Paris – 23.3.1566 Genf), Seigneur de Passy, nach Studium der Rechte Staats- und Parlamentsrat in Paris und seit 1548 Bf. von Nevers. S. resignierte 1559, floh nach Genf und wurde Protestant, nachdem er schon seit längerer Zeit prot. Neigungen verdächtigt wurde. Dahinter stand ein länger zurückliegender Ehebruch und die Absicht auf Legitimation eines Liebesverhältnisses und der daraus hervorgegangenen Kinder. S. spielte neben Th. Beza zu Beginn der Bürgerkrie…

Schwendi

(108 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Schwendi, Lazarus von (1522 Mittelbiberach – 28.5.1584 Kirchhofen im Breisgau), kaiserlicher Feldoberst, studierte in Basel und Straßburg, nahm am Schmalkaldischen Krieg, an den Kämpfen gegen Frankreich und, seit 1564 als Oberbefehlshaber, in Ungarn teil. In Denkschriften, v.a. von 1570 und 1574, trat er für Verbesserungen der Kreisverfassung und des Kriegswesens des Reiches mit dem Ziel einer stärkeren Zentralisierung und auf den Reichstagen zw. 1566 und 1576 für den Land- und Religionsfrieden und für rel. Toleranz ein. Harm Klueting Bibliography Vf. u.a…

Niebuhr

(194 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Niebuhr, Barthold Georg (27.8.1776 Kopenhagen – 2.1.1831 Bonn), Historiker, 1804 Direktor der dänischen Staatsbank und 1806 der »Preußischen Seehandlung«, hielt 1810 in Berlin Vorlesungen über röm. Gesch. und war von 1816–1823 preußischer Gesandter beim Hl. Stuhl (Neuordnung der kath. Diöz. in Preußen 1821). Seine Bedeutung hing an seiner »Röm. Gesch.«, die bis 241 v.Chr. reicht und sich durch rigorose Quellenkritik auszeichnet (v.a. Kritik an Livius). Auf N. geht die Sammlung des CIG zurück. Harm Klueting Bibliography Vf. u.a.: Röm. Gesch., Bd.1 und…

Turgot

(87 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques (10.5.1727 Paris – 20.3.1781 ebd.), von der Physiokratie beeinflußter Wirtschaftstheoretiker, seit 1774 Generalkontrolleur der Finanzen, suchte den Staatsbankrott Frankreichs durch Einsparungen und Steuerreformen abzuwenden. Mit seinen Reformedikten brachte er die Privilegierten gegen sich auf und wurde am 10.5.1776 entlassen. Harm Klueting Bibliography E. Brian, La mesure de l'etat, 1994, dt. Staatsvermessungen, 2001 M. Hill, Statesman of Enlightenment, 1999 J.-P. Poirier, T. Laissez-faire et progrès social, 1999 B. P…

Riegger

(168 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Riegger, Paul Joseph v. (29.6.1705 Freiburg i.Br. – 2.12.1775 Wien), Kanonist, nach Studium u.a. in Leiden und Dr. iur. utr. in Freiburg 1733–1749 Prof. für Natur- und Reichsstaatsrecht in Innsbruck, 1749 an der Savoyischen Ritterakademie in Wien und 1753–1773 Prof. für Kirchenrecht an der Universität Wien. R., 1764 geadelt, legte mit der theoretischen Trennung von Kirche und Staat und der Abgrenzung ihrer Zuständigkeitsbereiche die Grundlage des josephinischen Staatskirchenrechts, …

Oldenbarnevelt

(296 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[English Version] Oldenbarnevelt, Johann van (25.9.1547 Amersfoort – 13.5.1619 Den Haag), niederländischer Politiker, trat 1585 für die Berufung von Moritz von Oranien zum Statthalter von Holland und Seeland ein, war seit 1586 Ratspensionär der Provinz Holland, trug gemeinsam mit Moritz nach 1587 die Konsolidierung der Republik der Vereinigten Niederlande und handelte 1609 den zwölfjährigen Waffenstillstand mit Spanien aus. O. stand auf der Seite der Arminianer und der Remonstration von 1610 und ent…

Frederick the Great

(1,173 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Jan 24, 1712, Berlin – Aug 17, 1786, Sanssouci near Potsdam), king in (from 1772: of) Prussia. Following a strict religious upbringing, the son of Frederick William I soon turned to a religion of reason, which led to clashes with his father in 1726. The conflict escalated when the crown prince tried to escape in 1730, whereupon he was held under arrest in Küstrin. The price of the reconciliation with his father was Frederick's marriage to Elisabeth Christine v. Braunschweig-Bever…

Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques

(86 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (May 10, 1727, Paris – Mar 20, 1781, Paris), French economic theorist influenced by physiocracy. Appointed comptroller-general of finance in 1774, he sought to avert French national bankruptcy through economies and tax reforms. His reform edicts turned the privileged classes against him and he was dismissed on May 10, 1776. Harm Klueting Bibliography E. Brian, La mesure de l’etat, 1994 M. Hill, Statesman of Enlightenment, 1999 J.-P. Poirier, Turgot. Laissez-faire et progrès social, 1999 B. Plé, BBKL XVIII, 2001, 1402–1436.

Riegger, Paul Joseph von

(221 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Jun 29, 1705, Freiburg im Breisgau – Dec 2, 1775, Vienna), canonist. After studying in Leiden and elsewhere, and gaining his Dr.iur.utr. in Freiburg, Riegger served from 1733 to 1749 as professor of natural and imperial law in Innsbruck, was in 1749 at the Savoy Ritterakademie in Vienna, and from 1753 to 1773 professor of canon law at Vienna University. Riegger was ennobled in 1764. Through theoretical separation of church and state, and demarcation of their areas of responsibili…

Mutschelle, Sebastian

(199 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Jan 18, 1749, Allershausen near Freising – Nov 28, 1800, Munich), Catholic theologian and representative of the Catholic Enlightenment ¶ (II, 4.f). In 1765 he joined the Jesuit order, and after its abolition (1773) was from 1775 to 1788 a canon of St. Veit's Church in Freising, from 1793 to 1800 priest in Baumkirchen near Munich. In 1799 he became professor of moral and pastoral theology in Munich. Mutschelle contributed to the reform of elementary schools and teacher training, and especially to the reception of I. Kant in Catholic Germany. Harm Klueting Bibliography Wor…

Spifame, Jacques

(187 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (1502, Paris – Mar 23, 1566, Genega), seigneur de Passy. After studying law, he was appointed counselor of state and parliamentary counselor in Paris; he was appointed bishop of Nevers in 1548. In 1559 he resigned, fled to Geneva, and became a Protestant, having been suspected of Protestant sympathies for some time. In the background was an adulterous relationship in the distant past and a desire to legitimate a love affair and the children it produced. Together with T. Beza, Spif…

Hoen, Cornelisz Hendricxz

(335 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (also Hoon, Honius, Honnius; died 1524 in The Hague) attended the school of the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life in Utrecht and became an attorney at law in The Hague. In 1523, he was imprisoned after a religious disputation. Hoen had acquired Wessel Gansfort's De sacramento eucharistiae from the estate of the deceased Jacobus Hoeck, the reading of which led him to interpret the est in hoc est corpus meum (1Cor 11:24) in the sense of significat. The letter in which he discloses this interpretation to J. (Hinne) Rode, which some believe to have origin…

Richelieu, Jean Armand du Plessis, Duke of

(700 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Sep 9, 1585, Paris – Dec 4, 1642, Paris), French statesman and cardinal (1622). Richelieu gained the degree of Dr.theol. at the Sorbonne in 1607; in 1608, with papal dispensation because he was under the canonical age, he became bishop of Luçon, and in that capacity took part in the assembly of the States-General of 1614. In its final session he made a speech supporting the policies of the regent Marie de Medici, who in 1616 appointed him a minister in the council of state. After…

Keckermann, Bartholomäus

(327 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (1571/1573, Danzig – Aug [Jul?] 25,1608, Danzig), Reformed philosopher and polymath. He studied at the Danzig Gymnasium, in Wittenberg, Leipzig, and Heidelberg and graduated as Mag.phil. in 1595 and Lic. theol. in 1600, and was professor of Hebrew in Heidelberg from 1600 onward. He returned to Danzig in 1601 and became deputy principal at the Gymnasium. As a philosopher, Keckermann was the most prominent representative of an Aristotelian, anti-Ramist (P. Ramus) scholastic philosop…

Illuminati

(294 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Enlightened). The secret society of the Illuminati was founded in 1776 by Adam Weishaupt, banned in 1785, and dissolved in 1787. It was especially widespread in Bavaria, but also in the rest of Germany and in Austria. The Illuminati were a radical Enlightenment order, which was reflected in the self-designation “Illuminatos” (see also Alumbrados; Enlightenment [Spiritual]: III). They differed from the Freemasons in their atheist orientation (reading P.H.D. Baron v. Holbach and He…

Montgelas, Maximilian Joseph

(158 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (from 1809, Count; Sep 10, 1759, Munich – Jun 14, 1838, Munich), son of a Bavarian general of Savoyard descent. Montgelas wrote in 1789 the Mémoire instructif sur les droits des ducs de Bavière en matière ecclésiastique, and in 1796 the Ansbach Memorandum with a program of reform for Bavaria, whose policies he directed as foreign minister from 1799 to 1817 (at times also as minister of finance and of the interior). Grounded in secularization and mediatization, Montgelas's policies (reforms of administration, society, econ…

Napoleon

(706 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Napolione Buonaparte; Aug 15, 1769, Ajaccio, Corsica – May 5, 1821, St. Helena), emperor of the French. Lieutenant of the French artillery since 1785, Napoleon joined the “Montangards” around M. Robespierre in 1793; after the recapture of Toulon in December of 1793, he was promoted to general. After 9 Thermidor (Jul 27, 1794), he was temporarily dismissed from the army. After the defeat of the royalist uprising in Paris (Oct 5, 1795), he was made commander in chief of the Army of…

Schwendi, Lazarus von

(130 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (1522, Mittelbiberach – May 28, 1584, Kirchhofen im Breisgau), imperial diplomat and military commander. After studying at Basel and Straßburg (Strasbourg), he led forces in the Schmalkaldic War, wars with France, and (as commander-in-chief after 1564) in Hungary. In memoranda (esp. 1570 and 1574), he urged improvements in the Empire’s district organization and warfare, with the goal of greater centralization. At the Imperial Diets between 1566 and 1576, he urged public and religious peace, along with religious toleration. Harm Klueting Bibliography Works incl…

Niebuhr, Barthold Georg

(253 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Aug 27, 1776, Copenhagen – Jan 2, 1831, Bonn), historian. He was appointed director of the state bank of Denmark in 1804 and of the “Preußische Seehandlung” (Prussian Maritime Trading Company) in 1806. In 1810 he lectured on Roman history in Berlin. From 1816 to 1823, he served as Prussian ambassador to the Holy See (the reorganization of Catholic dioceses in Prussia in 1821). His significance rests on his Römische Geschichte (ET: Roman History, 1827), which gives an account up to 241 bce, and stands out for its rigorously critical use of sources (esp. its cri…

Retz, Jean-François-Paul de Gondi de

(203 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (baptized Sep 20, 1613, Montmirail, Département Marne – Aug 24, 1679, Paris). After studying theology, he was appointed coadjutor of Paris 1644; in 1652 he was made a cardinal, in 1654 archbishop of Paris, and in 1662 abbot of St. Denis. A political opponent of J. Mazarin and Louis XIV, he organized the uprising of the Fronde (1648–1653). He was arrested in 1652 but was appointed archbishop while still in prison. He was forced to resign his office (not recognized by Pope Innocent …

Mazarin (Mazzarini), Jules

(478 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Giulio Raimondi; Jul 14, 1602, Pescina, Abruzzi – Mar 9, 1661, Vincennes, near Paris), cardinal and French prime minister. He studied at the Jesuit College in Rome (Jesuits), received the Dr.iur.utr., and was captain of a papal regiment. In 1631, in the Mantuan War of Succession, he negotiated the treaties of Cherasco, which brought France Pignerolo as a gateway into northern Italy and brought Mazarin the protection of Richelieu. From 1634 to 1636, Mazarin was nuncio in Paris and…

Confessionalization

(931 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] I. Research Paradigm – II. Recent Developments – III. 19th Century I. Research Paradigm Confessionalization is the forming of state, society, and culture as a result of the formation of a denomination in the sense of the construction of a dogmatic system of doctrine. Confessionalization is seen in association with the early-modern state and social discipline, the backgrounds of which are sought in church discipline. The starting point was the Reformation (Schilling, Konfessionskonflikt; Reformierte Konfessionalisierung). After criticism of the term …

Werkmeister, Leonhard (von)

(453 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (ennobled in 1808; monastic name Benedikt Maria; Oct 22, 1745, Füssen – Jul 16, 1823, Stuttgart). In 1764/1765 Werkmeister entered the Benedictine abbey of Neresheim; he studied in Benediktbeuern and was ordained to the priesthood in 1769. In 1770 he became novice master. From 1772 to 1774 and 1778 to 1780, he taught philosophy in Freising; in 1780 he became head of studies in Neresheim. In 1784 he was appointed court chaplain by the Catholic duke Karl Eugen of Württemberg. In 179…

Lipsius, Justus

(214 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Joest Lips; Oct 18, 1547, Overijse, near Brussels – Mar 23, 1606, Louvain), late Humanist and Latin philologist. Lipsius was professor at Jena from 1572 to 1574, moved to Louvain in 1576, to Leiden in 1578, and back to Louvain in 1592. He changed his religious allegiance frequently. His rediscovery of the Stoics and the spread of neo-Stoicism, e.g. in Brandenburg-Prussia, were of immense importance. Harm Klueting Bibliography Works include: De Constantia, 1584 (Lat.-Ger., 1998) On Lipsius: G. Oestreich, Geist und Gestalt des frühmodernen Staates, 1969 G. Abel, Stoiz…

Rijswijk Clause

(360 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] name given to the stipulation in art. 4 of the Treaty of Rijswijk (Rijswick, near The Hague, the Netherlands), by which Louis XIV’s war with the Great Alliance ended on Sep 29/Oct 30, 1697, having begun in 1688. The Treaty forced Louis XIV to restore all the “reunion” territories obtained since 1679, and to give back the Palatinate, militarily occupied since 1688 (but not Strasbourg, annexed in 1681). Diverging from the “norm year” (Annus normalis; 1624) otherwise applied in the Peace of Westphalia, art. 4 guaranteed the Catholic confessional status ¶ of the restored re…

Simultaneum

(627 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] In the broader sense (1), a simultaneum is the coexistence of two or more denominations in one territory, in parity or under constraint for one party. In a narrower sense (2), it involves the shared use of church facilities, especially church buildings, by members of two or more denominations. An example of (1) is the coexistence of Reformed, Lutherans, and Catholics in the Electoral Palatinate and the restored occupied territories under the Rijswijk Clause (1697). Prior to 1679/1…

Josephinism

(1,134 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] The “shimmering and ambiguous term Josephinism” (Klueting, Josephinismus, 1) originated in the early 19th century and refers to Joseph II; the phenomenon existed long before 1780. In scholarship, Josephinism initially referred only to the state's policy toward the church (Winter, Maaß). Following Valjavec, Josephinism is now often understood as a shorthand term for all the reforms in the Austrian monarchy which were instituted in the 1740s, reached their apex after 1780, and which can be…

Isenbiehl, Johann Lorenz

(187 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Dec 20, 1744, Heiligenstadt, Eichsfeld – Dec 26, 1818, Oestrich, Rheingau), was a Catholic theologian, from 1773 professor of exegesis in Mainz. He sparked off the Isenbiehl Controversy in 1774 with theses in which he disputed the messianic character of Isa 7:14 in relation to Matt 1:22 (culminating in Neuer Versuch über die Weissagung des Emmanuel [1777]). During the controversy, theological pamphlets for and against Isenbiehl were exchanged. Suspended in 1774 and once again in 1777, then imprisoned in a monastery, with support from…

Marnix, Philipp

(465 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Filips), Heer van Sint-Aldegonde (1540, Brussels – Dec 15, 1598, Leiden), Flemish politician and academic, of a Savoyard family, who came to the Netherlands with the regent Margaret of Austria; he combined political Calvinism, theological polemic, and patriotic poetry. Marnix studied at Leuven, Paris, Dôle, Padua, and finally Geneva, whence he returned to the Netherlands in 1561 as a Calvinist. After the iconoclastic riots of 1566, in exile in eastern Friesland he wrote an apologia for the uprising (1567) and several polemical works, including De Bijenkorf der H…

L'Hospital, Michel de

(384 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (L'Hôpital; 1507, Aigueperse, Puy-de-Dôme – Mar 13, 1573, Bellébat near Paris) was a French statesman who had studied in Toulouse and Padua, and a jurist educated in theology and the humanities. From 1537, he was a member of the “Parlement” in Paris, and in 1547 he participated in the Council of Trent. After holding high state offices, in 1560 he became chancellor to the queen mother Catharine de Medici (1519–1589), who was regent during the minority of Charles IX (reigned from 15…

Oldenbarnevelt, Johan van

(326 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] (Sep 25, 1547, Amersfoort – May 13, 1619, The Hague), Netherlands politician. In 1585 he supported the appointment of Maurits of Orange as governor of Holland and Zeeland. From 1586 he was a council official of the province of Holland. From 1587, he worked with Maurits for the consolidation of the republic of the United Netherlands, and in 1609 negotiated the 12-year truce with Spain. Oldenbarnevelt took the side of the Arminians and the Remonstration of 1610, and in foreign polic…

Joseph II

(599 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm
[German Version] Holy Roman Emperor, king of Bohemia, king of Hungary, archduke of Austria (Mar 13, 1741, Vienna – Feb 22, 1790, Vienna), oldest son of Maria ¶ Theresia (1717–1780), the last of the Habsburgs, and her spouse, Franz Stephan of Lorraine (1708–1765), elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1745 as Franz I. Joseph was elected king of the Holy Roman Empire in 1764 and became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in 1765. In the Austrian monarchy (Austria), he became co-regent with his mother in 1765. In 17…

Weyer

(398 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm | Schneider, Hans
[English Version] (Wier), 1.Johannes (1515 Grave, Noordbrabant – 24.2.1588 Tecklenburg), war Schüler des H.C. Agrippa von Nettesheim und nach Studien in Paris von 1550–1578 Leibarzt Herzog Wilhelms des Reichen von Jülich-Kleve-Berg. W. wandte sich gegen den »Hexenhammer« (zuerst 1487) der Dominikaner Jakob Sprenger und Heinrich Institoris und suchte – gegen starke Widerstände (u.a. von J. Bodin) – den Glauben an Hexen (: II.) als Wahnvorstellung zu entlarven. Doch konnte er den Hexenglauben ebenso…

Weyer

(429 words)

Author(s): Klueting, Harm | Schneider, Hans
[German Version] 1. Johannes (1515, Grave, Brabant – Feb 24, 1588, Tecklenburg), physician, occultist, and demonologist. Weyer was a disciple of H.C. Agrippa of Nettesheim. ¶ After studying in Paris, he served as personal physician to Duke William the Rich of Jülich-Kleve-Burg from 1550 to 1578. He attacked the Hexenhammer (first publ. 1487) of the Dominicans Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich Institoris and sought – against strong resistance (including from J. Bodin) – to unmask belief in witches (II) as a delusion, but he was no more successful tha…

Church and State

(8,630 words)

Author(s): Thümmel, Hans Georg | Kandler, Karl-Hermann | Klueting, Harm | Oelke, Harry | Valeri, Mark | Et al.
[German Version] I. Church History – II. Law – III. Practical Theology – IV. Systematic Theology I. Church History 1. Early Church The Roman state (Roman Empire) tolerated philosophical atheism and a multitude of cults that flooded in from its conquered territories, but it refused to tolerate rejection of the cult of the official gods ( di publici populi Romani), on which the security of the state was believed to depend. Since Christians refused to participate in this cult, they inevitably came into conflict with the Roman state. Bot…
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