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Religiöse Reformbewegungen

(5,022 words)

Author(s): Schneider, Hans | Reichmuth, Stefan
1. Christentum 1.1. Allgemeines Als R. werden in der Geschichte des Christentums diejenigen relig. Bewegungen (Soziale Bewegungen, religiöse) bezeichnet, die eine reinigende Änderung der Zustände oder verbessernde Neuordnung in der Kirche oder deren Teilbereichen (z. B. Frömmigkeit, Liturgie, Orden) anstreben – im Unterschied zu gegenreformerischen oder ›reaktionären‹ Bewegungen, die Änderungen zu verhindern oder Neuerungen rückgängig zu machen suchen. Wenngleich Reform (von lat. reformare, ›umgestalten‹, ›wiederherstellen‹) dem Wortsinn nach auch die Wie…
Date: 2019-11-19

Wissenssysteme, außereuropäische

(13,502 words)

Author(s): König, Hans-Joachim | Reichmuth, Stefan | Raina, Dhruv | Mittag, Achim | Mathias, Regine
1. Einleitung Die ab dem ausgehenden 18. und am Beginn des 19. Jh.s deutlich werdenden Ansätze zur Naturbeherrschung durch europ. Naturwissenschaft und Technologie und das damit einhergehende Überlegenheitsgefühl verstellten den Blick auf die Leistungen von außereurop. Zivilisationen (Weltwahrnehmungen) [2. 81 ff.]. Das betraf v. a. die Wahrnehmung von und Einstellung gegenüber den Ländern Asiens und dem Orient insgesamt (Orientalismus). Diese Weltregion hatte sich im 16. und 17. Jh. noch in einem – wenn auch labilen – polit. und wi…
Date: 2019-11-19

Sultan

(1,617 words)

Author(s): Reichmuth, Stefan | Sievert, Henning
1. AllgemeinDer arab. Herrschaftstitel sulṭān (ursprgl. »Macht, Autorität«) kam im Abbasiden-Kalifat seit dem 10. Jh. für die Militärherrscher in Gebrauch, die zunehmend die effektive Macht ausübten und dabei vom Kalifen als relig.-rechtlichem Oberhaupt des islam. Reiches formell bestätigt wurden [5. 849–851]; [6]. Unter den Seldschuken (1038–1194) und Ghaznawiden (977–1186) setzte sich dieser Titel um die Mitte des 11. Jh.s in offizieller Titulatur und in Münzprägungen durch. Als Titel für das souveräne Staatsoberhaupt erfuhr er einen glanzvollen Prestige-Z…
Date: 2019-11-19

Tradition

(5,274 words)

Author(s): Walther, Gerrit | Walter, Peter | Leppin, Volker | Reichmuth, Stefan
1. Geschichte und Kultur 1.1. ÜberblickT. bedeutet »Überlieferung«. Idealtypisch versteht man darunter einen je spezifischen Fundus von Wissensbeständen und Techniken, Sitten und Bräuchen, Einstellungen und Haltungen, Normen und Institutionen, der innerhalb einer Gemeinschaft relativ unverändert von einer Generation an die folgende weitergegeben wird und deren Kultur dadurch Kontinuität und Identität verleiht. »Als Träger von T. im engeren und weiteren Sinne gelten bevorzugt die kleinen sozialen Einheiten (Eltern, Familie, Clan) oder Beruf…
Date: 2019-11-19

Stadt, global

(7,088 words)

Author(s): Rinke, Stefan | Nolte, Hans-Heinrich | Reichmuth, Stefan | Mittag, Achim | Mathias, Regine | Et al.
1. EinleitungWenn es sich trotz der langen Forschungstraditionen seit Max Weber und Georg Simmel schwierig gestaltet, einheitliche Kriterien für die Definition dessen zu finden, was in Europa als Stadt gelten soll, so ist dies angesichts der Vielfalt der Erscheinungsformen in den nichteurop. Weltregionen schlicht unmöglich [2]. Allerdings ist es sinnvoll, Jürgen Osterhammels Minimaldefinition zu folgen: »Eine ›S.‹ ist eine Weise, Raum gesellschaftlich zu organisieren« [3. 355].In fast allen Weltregionen bildeten sich lange vor dem Kulturkontakt mit den Europä…
Date: 2019-11-19

Sprachen, Literatur

(16,765 words)

Author(s): Lüsebrink, Hans-Jürgen | Schwarze, Sabine | Gil, Alberto | Rothmund, Elisabeth | Frenk, Joachim | Et al.
01. Einleitung 1.1. GrundlagenUnter Literatursprache (= Ls.), die u. a. als Allgemein-S., Hoch-S., Kultur-S., Kunst-S., S. der Literatur (= L.) etc. bezeichnet wird, versteht man die S. ästhetisch geformter L. Ihre nzl. Entwicklung weist zwei grundlegende Dimensionen auf: zum einen seit dem Übergang vom MA zur Nz. den zunehmenden Gebrauch von Volkssprachen anstelle des Lateinischen in lit. Texten, zum anderen die Verwendung spezifischer formalästhetischer Codes, die bis zum 18. und z. T. bis zum beginnenden 19.…
Date: 2019-11-19

Scharif

(1,620 words)

Author(s): Reichmuth, Stefan
1. Prophetennachfahren als religiöse Gruppe In vielen muslimischen Gesellschaften und Staaten der Nz. spielte die Nachkommenschaft des Propheten (= P. ) Muḥammad eine bedeutende Rolle im sozialen und kulturellen Leben (Tradition). Ihre vielfältigen genealogischen Abstammungslinien wurden dabei über die P.-Enkel Ḥasan und Ḥusain auf Fāṭima (gest. 632), Muḥammads Tochter, zurückgeführt, die mit seinem Cousin, dem späteren vierten Kalifen ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib verheiratet war. Die Bezeichnungen »Sch.« (von arab. šarīf, Plural ašrāf; »edel«) und »Sayyid« (arab. sayyid, Plural sād…
Date: 2019-11-19

Religious reform movements

(5,320 words)

Author(s): Schneider, Hans | Reichmuth, Stefan
1. Christianity 1.1. General remarksIn the history of Christianity, the term  religious reform movements comprises those religious movements (Social movements, religious) that aspire to bring about a purifying change in conditions or an improved restructuring in the church or some of its aspects (e.g. devotion, liturgy, monasticism [Order (association)]). These can be contrasted with anti-reformatory or “reactionary” movements that seek to prevent changes or to reverse innovations. Although etymologically reform (from Latin  reformare, “reshape,” “restore”) also …
Date: 2021-08-02

Conversion between faiths

(8,464 words)

Author(s): Siebenhüner, Kim | Bock, Heike | Carl, Gesine | Helbig, Annekathrin | Reichmuth, Stefan | Et al.
1. General considerations 1.1. Terminology In religious and cultural history conversion (Lat. conversio; “turn-about,” “transformation”) means a person's change of religion or confession. Conversion between religions and confessions is not always easily distinguishable from the experience of conversion per se: while the latter is more to do with commitment to a (more) spiritual life and a turn to God, conversion between religions is a conversion with the acknowledgment of a new religious truth, often associated with a new confession of faith [2] (Faith; Confession of faith…
Date: 2019-10-14

Islam

(9,689 words)

Author(s): Reichmuth, Stefan | Bobzin, Hartmut
1. Introduction By the dawn of the early modern period, Islam was the religion of the overwhelming majority of the populations of its historic heartlands in the Near and Middle East and North Africa. It was also growing in South and Southeast Asia as far as China, and in sub-Saharan Africa. It was also represented in Europe in Spain, the Balkans, and the Tatar Khanates. Prior to the end of Islamic rule in Spain (1492) and the beginning of European expansion and the Christian mission in the America…
Date: 2019-10-14

Sultan

(1,776 words)

Author(s): Reichmuth, Stefan | Sievert, Henning
1. IntroductionThe Arabic royal title  sulṭān (originally “power, authority”) came into use from the 10th century onwards in the Abbasid Caliphate for military rulers, who were increasingly exercising effective power, formally endorsed by the Caliph acting as the supreme religious and legal head of the Islamic realm [5. 849–851]; [6]. The title became officially established, and began appearing on coins around the middle of the 11th century under the Seljuks (1038–1194) and Ghaznavids (977–1186).As the title given to the sovereign head of state, the term “sultan”…
Date: 2022-08-17

Knowledge systems beyond Europe

(14,466 words)

Author(s): König, Hans-Joachim | Reichmuth, Stefan | Raina, Dhruv | Mittag, Achim | Mathias, Regine
1. Introduction The beginnings of a project to “conquer nature” that became apparent in European science and technology from the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and the sense of superiority this engendered, distorted views of the accomplishments of non-European civilizations (World perception) [2. 81 ff.]. This was particularly true of perceptions of and attitudes towards the countries of Asia and the “Orient” as a whole (Orientalism). During the 16th and 17th centuries, this region of the world had found its way to an albeit volatil…
Date: 2019-10-14

Sharia

(2,383 words)

Author(s): Reichmuth, Stefan
1. Sharia and fiqhIn common Muslim usage, the term Sharia (Arabic  šarī‘a, Ottoman Turkish  şerī‘at) denotes the totality of the norms of belief, ethics, and  justice in Islam given by God through the Quran and the Prophet Muḥammad. The term includes the corpus of normative Islamic texts (i.e. the Quran and the tradition of the Prophet) together with their learned interpretation, systematization, and updating, as well as their application by judges or rulers in the institutions of administration of justice. It is closely related to  fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence, which…
Date: 2022-08-17

Literate cultures beyond Europe

(5,913 words)

Author(s): Bley, Helmut | Reichmuth, Stefan | Rinke, Stefan | Schmidt-Glintzer, Helwig | Frese, Heiko
1. IntroductionTo be considered first in this exploration of the non-European literate cultures are the various manuscript cultures that developed independent dynamics in many parts of Asia and Africa and among the indigenous cultures of Central and South America (American indigenous peoples; see below, 3.). Specific interrelations with oral forms of textual culture are evident here. Also important is the issue of the spread of printing with movable type, which reached other continents from Europ…
Date: 2019-10-14

Slavery

(9,266 words)

Author(s): Zeuske, Michael | Reichmuth, Stefan
1. Terminology and preceptsSlaves are people who are subject to the power of other people or institutions. Slavery is an institution of dominance that makes available the labor, services, and bodies of slaves for slave keepers and owners. The slave trade consists of the transportation of and trade in slaves (human trafficking) and the accrual of capital through the exchange, purchase, and sale of people (Slave abduction; Slave market). “Slaving” comprised the hunting, abduction, transportation, cap…
Date: 2022-08-17

Tradition

(5,717 words)

Author(s): Walther, Gerrit | Walter, Peter | Leppin, Volker | Reichmuth, Stefan
1. History and culture 1.1. IntroductionTradition (Latin traditio, via Old French  tradicion, “handing over,” “delivery”) denotes customs, beliefs, and the like, that are “handed down” from generation to generation. In theory, it is understood as a specific reservoir of knowledge, techniques, technologies, mores, customs, perspectives, attitudes, norms, and institutions residing within a community and passed down relatively unchanged by one generation to the next, thereby lending continuity and identity to…
Date: 2022-11-07

Sufism

(3,171 words)

Author(s): Reichmuth, Stefan
1. BackgroundThe term Sufism is an umbrella term for mystical and ascetic tendencies within Islamic religious teaching and piety. Its beginnings go back to the 9th century; they underwent extensive doctrinal systematization beginning in the 11th century [19]; [22]. Initially shaped strongly by the affective piety of the Shia (Shia, Shi’ite), mysticism also developed into a significant aspect of religious life within Sunni Islam. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, it provided the foundation for the emergence of a hierarchicall…
Date: 2022-08-17

School

(11,708 words)

Author(s): Bruning, Jens | Lohmann, Ingrid | Nolte, Hans-Heinrich | Reichmuth, Stefan
1. General survey 1. Definition and functionToday the word school (from Latin  schola, from Greek  scholḗ, “freedom from tasks”; see Leisure) denotes a public or private institution charged with using systematic instruction to convey knowledge, insight, and the ability to reach reasoned conclusions – primarily to children and adolescents, but also to adults. The functions of a school thus involve the acquisition of qualifications, adaptation to socio-cultural systems (socialization), screening by means of tes…
Date: 2021-08-02

Language, literary

(18,024 words)

Author(s): Lüsebrink, Hans-Jürgen | Reichmuth, Stefan | Schwarze, Sabine | Gil, Alberto | Rothmund, Elisabeth | Et al.
1. Introduction 1.1. PrinciplesA literary language, also known as an official, high, standard, cultural, or art language, language of literature, etcetera, is a language used in literature shaped by aesthetic considerations. The development of literary languages in the early modern period displays two fundamental dimensions. First, in the transition from the Middle Ages to the early modern period there was an increasing use of the vernacular in place of Latin in literary texts, and secondly specifi…
Date: 2019-10-14

Cultural contact, global

(9,702 words)

Author(s): Rinke, Stefan | Falola, Toyin | Aderinto, Saheed | Reichmuth, Stefan | Liebau, Heike | Et al.
1. Introduction The term cultural contact was long taken to mean the meeting of different cultural units that was homogenous and static in themselves. Modern approaches to an understanding of the concept proceed on the basis of a different idea of culture, seeing it as a “self-woven web of meaning” [3. 9] in human consciousness, subject to perpetual change in dynamic processes of the construction of symbols. Interpretations are thus made both individually and collectively, and these give rise to meanings and identities. This interpretation br…
Date: 2019-10-14
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