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Gk. βούλησις/ boúlēsis (βουλή/ boulḗ, βούλημα/ boúlēma), γνώμη/ gnṓmē, διάνοια/ diánoia, (ἐ)θέλησις/ ( e)thélēsis, ἐπιθυμία/ epithymía, ὄρεξις/ órexis, ὁρμή/ hormḗ, προαίρεσις/ prohaíresis, etc.; Latin voluntas, arbitrium, etc. [German version] I. Definition and background As is already indicated by the variety of the Greek terms and their secondary meanings, there was no concept of the will in the sense that, since the Middle Ages, has been serving in all European languages to describe an autonomous mental readiness to act (wh…

[German version] A. General As can be seen from the multitude of names ─ some of them impersonal ─ for the powers of fate in Homer (  aísa , aísimon,   anánkē ,   moîra (i), móros, mórsimon,   némesis , peproménē), these are not personal deities, but rather explain inescapable events, such as the early death of prominent heroes. Even the gods' ability to assert their authority was limited when faced with this ‘lot’ [1; 2]. Frede, Dorothea (Hamburg) [German version] B. Graeco-Roman Philosophical Theories of Fate In early Greek philosophy the question of human destiny is replaced, in…

(Ἀριστοτέλης; Aristotélēs). [German version] [1] Athenian oligarch Athenian oligarch who, in 404 BC, was banned from Athens and sent to Sparta by  Lysander (Xen. Hell. 2,2,118). Later, he was one of the 30 Tyrants in Athens (Xen. Hell. 2,3,2;  Triakonta), who sent him to Sparta with the request for a Spartan occupational force (Xen. Hell. 2,3,13). Traill, PAA, 174765. Meier, Mischa (Bielefeld) [German version] [2] Rhodian envoy, 166/5 BC Rhodian envoy to Rome who, in 166/5 BC, failed in his request for a renewal of the amicitia by the Senate (Pol. 30,23,2-4) [1. 167,2; 2. 208]. Günther, …

(ἡδονή/ hēdonḗ, Lat. voluptas). [German version] A. Definition and background The Greek idea of pleasure as the aim and defining motive in conducting one's life appears comparatively early in Greek didactic literature, with both positive and negative assessments (e.g. Hes. Op. 287-92; Theognis 983-985; Simonides fr. 71; 79; particularly impressive in Prodicus' parable of the choice of Heracles between the easy path of physical pleasure and the arduous path of virtue, Xen. Mem. 2,21-34). The terminology was initially not clearly defined (alongside hēdonḗ there was also chará, euphr…