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Ur

(542 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Mesopotamia (modern Tall al-Muqayyar; Sumerian uriki ; in the OT Ūr kaśdīm, cf. Gn 11,28 and 31; 15,7 i.a.; no Greek name, since it was abandoned in the 4th cent. BC). City in th…

Tell

(122 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] (or tall; Arabic tall, plural tulūl; 'hill', then also 'settlement mound'). A common component of present-day names of ruin sites in the Near East. It indicates a widespread shape for earlier places of settlement in the Near East and Central Asia, which grew, some to a considerable height, by the accumulation of layers of settlement on top of each other. This was caused by the most wid…

Ichara

(122 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] …

Uruk

(534 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Mesopotamia (modern al-Warkā; Sumerian unu(g)ki; in the OT Erek/ rk, cf. Gn 10:10; Greek Ὀρχόη/ Orchóē). City in southern Babylonia, discovered in 1849 by W. K. Loftus, excavated by German archaeologists since 1912 (with wartime int…

Tashkent

(152 words)

Turfan

(280 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] Town and oasis region (T. basin) in eastern Uyghurstan (Xinjian) in China, to the south of the Tianshan mountains, on the northeastern edge of the Taklamakan desert, an important station on the Silk Road. There are numerous historically and archaeologically significant places there: 10 km to the west of modern T. is the Chinese fortress of Jiaohe, which from the 2nd cent. BC until the 5th cent. AD was the cap…

Thumna

(102 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] (Θούμνα/ Thoúmna Ptol. 6,7,31; Τάμνα/ Támna Str. 16,4,2-4 and Steph. Byz.; Thomna Plin. HN 6,153 and 12,64; inscriptions Tumna, cf. Biblical Timna Gn 36:12, 1 Chr 1:51; modern Ḥaǧar Kuḥlān). On the Incense Road between Sabbatha and Mariaba in modern Yemen, once the capital of the kingdom of the Qatabān ( Kattabaneís). Besides houses, excavations have revealed a gate building, a temple and graves. The dating is still uncertain: between 685/430 BC and 100/200 AD. Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) Bibliography G. W. van Beek, s. v. Timna, The Oxford Encyclopedia of…

Timna

(113 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] Right-hand side valley of the Wādī al-Araba, about 30 km to the north of the Gulf of Aqaba. There were rich copper deposits there, which were mined from the 4th millennium BC until the Islamic period by means of galleries, up to 35 m long, cut into the rock. Smelting sites are evidence of smelting in situ. An Egyptian temple from the time of Sethos [1] I (1290-1279) and Ramses [2] II (1279-1213) particularly deserves mention. Nissen,…

Tochari

(161 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] (Τόχαροι/ Tócharoi  Str. 11,8,2; Latin Tochari:  Just. Epit. 42,2,2; Thocari: Plin.  HN 6,55; Τάχοροι/ Táchoroi: Ptol. 6,16,4; Athagurae: Amm.  Marc. 23,6,66; Θαγούροι/ Thagoúroi: Ptol. 6,16,2). Group of Inner Asian tribes,…

Luristan

(75 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] Mountain province of central Iranian Zagrus settled from the 6th millennium. L. is especially well known because of the large number of bronze weapons and artefacts from extensive (plundered) cemeteries, particularly from the 1st millennium BC, now in numerous museums. Nissen, Hans Jörg (B…

Marathus

(164 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Diadochi and Epigoni | Phoenicians, Poeni Modern Amrīt, important town in northern Phoenicia south of Aradus [1], which controlled it in 333/2 BC (Arr. Anab. 2,13,8; 14,1; 15,6; Curt. 4,1,6) and in 218 (Pol. 5,68,7). Around the middle of the 2nd cent. M. was independent and was able to defend itself against the Aradians (Diod. Sic. 33,5f.). According to Str. 16,2,12, M. was destroyed and its land divided among settlers from Aradus, but the city must…

Susiana

(76 words)

Ziwiye

(104 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] Town in northwestern Iran with Iron Age III remains (7th cent. BC). The objects made of gold, silver, bronze, ivory and ceramics, some magnificent, published as originating in Z. in numerous museums and collections are, however, all from illic…

Tepe

(33 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] (or Tape, Tappe; Turkish 'hill'). Frequent component of the modern name of ruin sites in the region from Near to Central Asia. Synonymous with tell. Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)

Persepolis

(605 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Achaemenids | Alexander | Hellenistic states | India, trade with (modern Taḫt-e Ǧamšīd; Greek Πέρσαι Πόλις/ Pérsai Pólis, Περσέπολις/ Persépolis (Diod. Sic. 17,70,1

Höyük

(42 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] also Hüyük. Turkish for hill, mostly used for old settlement sites that have been built up in a mound-like manner and, similar to Arabic  tell, a component in the name of many ruin sites. Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)

Tayma

(165 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] (Taimā). Oasis in northwestern Arabia on the Incense Road, which led along the western side of the Arabian peninsula. The earliest traces of settlement point to the late 2nd millennium BC. T. is mentioned among the Arabian tribes defeated by the Assyrian ruler Tiglath-Pileser III in 733 BC (cf. OT Jes 21,14). The last ruler of the neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabonid, stayed in T. from 552 until 542 BC (cult city of the moon goddess (Moon deities)). After the Achaemenid period T. - itself in Nabataean territory - was in the shadow of the Nabataean trading cities of Hegra and Dedān (Nabataei; 1st cent. BC - 2nd cent. AD). The small ruin, primarily from the Achaemenid period, lies within a broad horticultural and agricultural area enclosed …

Sanbulus

(110 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] According to Tac. Ann. 12,13,3 the place where Gotarzes II defeated Mithridates [15], his anti-king sent by Rome; it is also mentioned that the last battle between Alexander [4] the Great and Darius [3] III was fought in the same place. Reference is made to a fortress near Nineveh (Ninus [2]). S. is a mountain on which Gotarzes sacrificed to Hercules and is presumably close to the field of battle. S. has to date not been identified. Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) Bibliography P. Bernard, Heracles, les grottes de Karafto et le sanctuaire du Mont Sambulos en Iran, in: Studia Iranica 9, 1980, 301-324  J. Tubach, Herakles vom Berge Sanbulos, in: AncSoc 26, 1995, 241-271.

Ziggurat

(350 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] (Akkadian ziqqurratu, 'temple tower', from zaqāru, 'build high'). Tower of block-shaped stages, each smaller than the one below, used as the base for a temple. Although no remains of the uppermost part of a ziggurat are extant, it is definite from descriptions that this upper part existed. The term ziggurat is sometimes also used loosely in modern scholarly terminology for the architectural construction of a 'temple on terraces'.…

Sippar

(193 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Mesopotamia full name S.-Yaẖrurum [1; 2], modern Abū Ḥabba. One of the most significant cities of northern Babylonia, counted among the cities 'before the flood' in the Sumerian kings' lists. Main cultic site of the sun god Šamaš. With origins going back to the 4th millennium BC; it reached its zenith in the 2nd and 1st millennia. The nearb…

Yazılıkaya

(171 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] Hittite rock sanctuary (dated to c. 1260 BC), about 2 km to the northeast of the capital Ḫattusa. In a limestone layer – accessible from the outside by means of a cleft – there are two naturally formed main chambers and two side chambers, whose vertical rock walls are covered in reliefs. In front of the opening there were several buildings, serving as an entrance area for the sanctuary proper in the upwardly open rock chambers. In the centre of the depiction on the northern wall of Cha…

Sogdiana

(304 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] (Σογδιανή; Sogdianḗ). Region of the Achaemenid Empire between Oxus (Araxes [2]) and Iaxartes, part of the Sixteenth Satrapy; The inhabitants were called Sogdianoí or Sógdoi, Old Persian Sug(u)da, Avestan Su γδ a, Sogdian Sughdh. The capital was Maracanda (modern Samarkand), the Achaemenid base for ruling eastern Iran. In Darius [2] II's building report on his palace in Susa S. is mentioned as the supplier of lapis lazuli and cornelian. S. …

Steppe

(316 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[German version] Steppe is a term for semi-arid regions of vegetation and climate that, in relation to temperature, experience inadequate precipitation for trees to grow. This form of vegetation and climate can be found in southeastern Europe, northern Africa, in various areas of the Near East, of southern Russia and of central Asia. The boundaries both with agrarian land and with desert can fluctuate in accordance with the annual climatic conditions; in the latter case, one can also speak of dese…

Marathos

(153 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[English version] Dieser Ort ist auf folgenden Karten verzeichnet: Diadochen und Epigonen | Phönizier, Punier h. Amrīt; bed. Stadt im nördl. Phönizien südl. von Arados [1], dem sie im J. 333/2 v.Chr. (Arr. an. 2,13,8; 14,1; 15,6; Curt. 4,1,6) wie auch 218 (Pol. 5,68,7) unterstand. Um die Mitte des 2. Jh. war M. unabhängig und konnte sich gegen die Aradier wehren (Diod. 33,5f.). Nach Strab. 16,2,12 war M. zerstört und sein Land an Siedler aus Arados aufgeteilt, do…

Ichara

(112 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[English version] (Ἰχάρα, h. Failaka). Insel im Persischen Golf an der Ostküste Arabiens. Das bei Ptolemaios (6,7,47 N) genannte I. wird heute allg. als Variante zu Ikaros aufgefaßt. Während die Identifikation lange zwischen Failaka, Kharg und Qaru schwankte, ist die Gleichung von Ikaros (und damit Ichara?) mit Failaka inzwischen inschr. bestätigt. Nach Arrianos (an. 7,20,2-3) erhielt die Insel ihren Namen von A…

Luristan

(69 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[English version] Gebirgsprov. des mittleren iran. Zagros, die seit dem 6. Jt. besiedelt war. Bes. bekannt ist L. durch die zahlreichen Bronzewaffen und -geräte aus (beraubten) ausgedehnten Friedhöfen v.a. des 1. Jt. v.Chr., die sich in zahlreichen Museen befinden. Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) Bibliography F. Hole (Hrsg.), The Archaeology of Western Iran, 1987  L.Vanden Berghe, La nécropole de Mir Khair au Pusht-i Kuh, L., in: Iranica Antiqua 14, 1979, 1-37.

Persepolis

(526 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[English version] Dieser Ort ist auf folgenden Karten verzeichnet: Achaimenidai | Alexandros | Hellenistische Staatenwelt | Indienhandel (h. Taḫt-e Ǧamšīd; griech. Πέρσαι Πόλις/ Pérsai Pólis, …

Irrigation

(1,183 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Rathbone, Dominic (London)
[German version] I. Near East and Egypt Irrigation means the artificial provision of water to fields in order to enable or intensify plant growth. It supported cultivation in rain-fed regions (attested as early as the 5th millennium BC in western Iran), but its primary significance was in areas whose productivity depended entirely on it, their own rainfall never being sufficient, such as the Nile Valley and t…

Relief

(3,221 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Neudecker, Richard (Rome)
I. Egypt and Ancient Near East [German version] A. Egypt Egypt had a long tradition of the two-dimensional portrayal of individual scenes and substantial compositions, initially as paintings on pottery, later as wall paintings and reliefs ( e.g. Narmer Palette, Proto-dynastic Period, c. 3100 BC). At the latest from the time of the Old Kingdom onwards, stone steles could be added to these, erected in association with the cult of the dead (dead, cult of), while the deeds of rulers were depicted in longer scenes on the walls of major buildings and tombs. In an effort to illuminate the overall context, individual activities (of …

Orthostats

(230 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Höcker, Christoph (Kissing)
[German version] I. Ancient Orient and Egypt Ancient Near East and Egypt In Near Eastern archaeology, orthostats are standing stone slabs, which in the Anatolian region originally protected the base of walls from backsplash. From the 9th cent. onwards, especially in the Neo-Assyrian palaces, they were used as mounts for static and narrative reliefs. The narrative cycles in the pa…

Rhyton

(619 words)

Author(s): Scheibler, Ingeborg (Krefeld) | Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
(τὸ ῥυτόν/ tò rhytón). [German version] I. Object Funnel-shaped vessel for dispensing and drinking, usually ending in …

Mesopotamia

(7,071 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Oelsner, Joachim (Leipzig)
I. General [German version] A. Name The name M., i.e. ‘[land] between the rivers [ Euphrates [2] and Tigris]’, first appears in Arrian (Arr. Anab. 3,7,3; 7,7,3) as a designation for the area of what is now eastern Syria and northern Iraq, probably corresponding to the Aramaic beyn nahrīn and the Akkadian māt birīt nārim (both ‘between the rivers’). However, this expression designated only the region between the bend of the Euphrates and Baliḫ/Ḫabur [1; 2]. Later, M. could also refer to the entire region of the two rivers (Plin. HN 5,86). In modern,…

Column

(3,015 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Höcker, Christoph (Kissing)
[German version] I. Egypt and the Ancient Orient As a statically significant building element, whether in wood or modelled from stone or brick, the column played different roles in Egypt and the Ancient Orient. In Egypt columns were a component of almost every form of architecture, from roof-bearing wooden posts in family residences to extravagantly shaped stone columns in temples and palaces. Having bases and capitals, the lat…

Rabbath-Ammon

(318 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
This item can be found on the following maps: Syria | Theatre | Dead Sea (textual finds) | Hasmonaeans | Pompeius ( Rabbath bnē Ammōn, LXX Ῥαββά/ Rhabbá; Pol. Ῥαβατάμανα/ Rhabatámana, Assyrian bīt ammāna; Philadelphia since the mid 3rd cent. BC; modern Ammān).…

Grain

(4,159 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Sallares, Robert (Manchester)
[German version] I. Ancient Orient The various species of hulled and naked wheat ( triticum = t.) and barley ( hordeum) are among the earliest domesticated plants of the Middle East (Q. Ǧarmu; Çatal H.;  Faiyum). Besides  emmer ( t. dicoccum) and einkorn ( t. monococcum), both hulled, the common or bread wheat (naked; t. aestivum) are also species of wheat. The fact that the hulled sorts, which require more work (removal of the hull through roasting), also predominated in later mille…

Sambus

(143 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Karttunen, Klaus (Helsinki)
[German version] [1] Tributary of the Ganges (Σάμβος/ Sámbos). Tributary of the Ganges (Arr. Ind. 4,4: Megasthenes), possibly identical to the Sarabus (Ptol. 7,1,29; 2,13) corresponding to the Sarayū (Agoranis). …

Zoo

(933 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Müller, Stefan (Hagen)
(παράδεισος/ parádeisos, ζωγρεῖον/ zōgreîon; Latin vivarium). [German version] I. Ancient Orient Zoos are known primarily from neo-Assyrian palace sites (11th-7th cents. BC), in the sense both of parks populated with animals of every kind and of enclosures in which game was kept (Paradeisos). Reliefs of hunting lions, wild asses etc. are known from the palace of Assurbanipal in Nineveh with representations of cages/enclosures; there are written records of lion enclosures as early as the beginning of the 2n…

Mesopotamien

(6,248 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Oelsner, Joachim (Leipzig)
I. Allgemein [English version] A. Name Die Bezeichnung M., d.h. “[Land] zwischen den Strömen [Euphrates [2] und Tigris]” erscheint erstmals bei Arrian (Arr. an. 3,7,3; 7,7,3) als Bezeichnung für die Gebiete des h. östl. Syrien und nördl. Iraq, vermutlich als Entsprechung zum aram. beyn nahrīn und zum akkad. māt birīt nārim (beides “zwischen den Flüssen”), womit allerdings nur die Region zw. Euphratbogen und Baliḫ/Ḫabur gemeint war [1; 2]. Später kann M. auch die ganze Region der beiden Flüsse bezeichnen (Plin. nat. 5,86). Im mod., ungenauen Sprachgebrauch benennt M. das Gebiet des h. Iraq, geteilt in Nord- und Süd-M., respektive Assyrien (Assyria) und Babylonien (Babylonia) mit der Grenze oberhalb der engsten Stelle zw. den beiden Flüssen. Für die ältere Zeit findet sich die mod. Benennung Sumer für das südl., Akkad für das nördl…

Obsidian

(241 words)

Author(s): Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) | Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
[English version] ( obsianus lapis, “Stein des Opsius”; obsidianus ist falsche Lesart) ist ein dunkles, glasartiges (Plin. nat. 36,196: in genere vitri = Isid. orig. 16,16,5) Vulkangestein, das ein gewisser Obsius aus Äthiopien nach Rom eingeführt haben soll. O. wurde in Vorderasien seit dem 8. Jt., in Äg. seit dem 4. Jt. vor allem wegen der scharfen Schneidekanten aus Klingen hergestellter Werkzeuge, aber auch wegen seiner halbtransparenten Eigenschaft als Schmuckstein geschätzt (akkadisch ṣurru; äg. mnw). Ab dem 2. Jt. wurde O. vor allem für Siegel (in Mesopot.: R…

Orthostat

(201 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Höcker, Christoph (Kissing)
[English version] I. Alter Orient und Ägypten In der Vorderasiatischen Archäologie werden als O. die aufrecht stehenden Steinplatten bezeichnet, mit denen urspr. im anatolischen Bereich die Füße der Mauern vor Spritzwasser geschützt wurden. Vom 9. Jh. an dienten sie bes. in den neuassyrischen Palästen der Anbringung statischer und erzählender Reliefs. Berühmt sind die Reliefzyklen in den Palästen der Herrscher Assurnaṣirpal II. in Kalḫu, Sanherib und Assurbanipal in Ni…

Rabbath Ammon

(291 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Leisten, Thomas (Princeton)
Dieser Ort ist auf folgenden Karten verzeichnet: Hasmonäer | Pompeius | Syrien | Theater | Totes Meer (Textfunde) ( Rabbath bnē Ammōn, LXX Ῥαββά; Pol. Ῥαβατάμανα; assyrisch bīt ammāna; seit der Mitte des 3. Jh. v. Chr. Philadelpheia; h. Ammān). [English version] I. Bis zur Perserzeit Hauptstadt der Ammoniter (Ammon [2]); älteste Siedlungsspuren stammen aus dem Neolithikum (7./6. Jt. v. Chr.). Früheste bedeutende Reste mit reichen Gräbern auf der Zitadelle datieren in die mittlere Brz. (1. H. des 2. Jt. v. Chr.); seitdem durchgängig besiedelt.…

Säule

(2,743 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Höcker, Christoph (Kissing)
[English version] I. Ägypten und Alter Orient Die S. als statisch bedeutsames Bauglied in Form einer runden Stütze, ob aus Holz oder nachgebildet in Stein oder Backstein, spielte in Äg. und im Alten Orient eine unterschiedliche Rolle. In Äg. waren S. Bestandteil fast jeder Art von Architektur, von dachtragenden Holzpfosten in Wohnhäusern bis zu aufwendig gestalteten Stein-S. in Tempeln und Palästen. Mit Basen und Kapitellen versehen, verraten auch die letztgenannten ihre Herkunft von der Holz-S. Häufig nahmen S. pflanzliche Formen an; sie waren verm. immer bemalt. Im hethitisch-s…

Bewässerung

(1,124 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Rathbone, Dominic (London)
[English version] I. Vorderer Orient und Ägypten Bewässerung meint die künstliche Zufuhr von Wasser auf Feldflächen zur Ermöglichung bzw. Intensivierung des Pflanzenwuchses. Sie unterstützt den Anbau in Gebieten des Regenfeldbaus (nachweislich bereits im 5. Jt.v.Chr. in Westiran), hat ihre bes. Bed. jedoch dort, wo sie Gebiete erst nutzbar macht, die nie von genügend Regen erreicht w…

Rhyton

(530 words)

Author(s): Scheibler, Ingeborg (Krefeld) | Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin)
(τὸ ῥυτόν). [English version] I. Gegenstand Trichterförmiges Spende- und Trinkgefäß, meist in Kopf oder Protome eines Tieres endend; die Bezeichnung ist abzuleiten von ῥυσις/ rhýsis (“Strom”), denn die Flüssigkeit konnte durch ein kleines Loch am Boden auslaufen, sofern man es nicht zuhielt [1; 2]. Scheibler, Ingeborg (Krefeld) Bibliography 1 F. von Lorentz, s. v. Rh., RE Suppl. 6, 643 2 W. H. Gross, s. v. Rh., KlP 4, 1426 f. [English version] II. Alter Orient Im Alten Orient und Äg. vor den Achaimeniden sind Rh. lediglich in Anatolien bezeugt. Dort finden sich schon…

Relief

(2,791 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Neudecker, Richard (Rom)
I. Ägypten und Alter Orient [English version] A. Ägypten Die zweidimensionale Wiedergabe von Einzelszenen und größeren Kompositionen hat in Äg. eine lange Trad., zunächst als Gefäßmalerei, dann als Wandmalerei und R. (z. B. Narmer-Palette, protodyn. Zeit, um 3100 v. Chr.). Spätestens seit dem AR traten steinerne Stelen hinzu, errichtet im Zusammenhang mit dem Totenkult, und in längeren Szenen wurden die Taten der Herrscher auf Wänden von Großbauten und Gräbern abgebildet. Im Bestreben, den Gesamtkontext zu erläutern, wurden au…

Pyrgos Lithinos

(105 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Olshausen, Eckart (Stuttgart)
[English version] (Πύργος Λίθινος: Ptol. 1,12,8 M.; 6,13,2 N.; wörtl. “steinerner Turm”). Wichtige Station im Pamir an der von Westen über Antiocheia [7] und Baktra nach China führenden Seidenstraße. Trotz guter Quellenlage - Ptol. basiert auf dem Itinerar des Marinos [1] von Tyros, dieser auf den Aufzeichnungen des Seidenhändlers Maēs Titianus - ist die Identifizierung noch nicht völlig gelungen; der Ort ist jedoch auf der Karte [2. 6 D2] eingetragen. Nissen, Hans Jö…

Mills

(1,880 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Baatz, Dietwulf (Bad Homburg)
[German version] I. Ancient Orient and Egypt In the Near Eastern and Egyptian cultures, only grinding mills were used. These consisted of an oblong grindstone and a running stone that was moved back and forth on top of it. Rotary mills, the upper stone of which turned on an axis, did not appear until Roman influence made itself felt. The grinding stones were mostly of basalt, imported from afar when necessary. The terms for the grinding and rubbing stones are NA4.ARÀ in Sumerian, erûm and narkabum in Akkadian, bnwt in Egyptian. Mills could be found in every household; large-scale mill…
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