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[German version] I. Use In Antiquity presses were used primarily in oil and wine production and for processing papyrus leaves, cloth, fruit, herbs and roots and producing essential oils. By the time of Old Kingdom Egypt treading grapes in vats was customary; for further processing of the mash, bag-presses were used: by winding two sticks fastened on each end of a bag towards one another, additional must could be wrung out of the mash in the sack. In the ancient Mediterranean olives were first pounded or mashed with stones in a mortar, but not entirely squeezed out; later a trapetum (see below…

[German version] Leading an insurrection of slaves, the Thracian S. entangled Rome from 73 to 71 BC in the most dangerous slave war of her history (App. B Civ. 1,116-120; Plut. Crassus 8-11: Σπάρτακος; Flor. Epit. 2,8). Together with 70 companions Spartacus had succeeded in escaping from a gladiator school in Capua in 73 BC. With shepherds and other agricultural slaves (Agriculture) joining them, the band around S. grew rapidly. Although S. managed to repel 3,…

[German version] I. Ancient Near East and Egypt The tools of the Near Eastern cultures and Egypt comprised…

[German version] The lanista trained gladiators (Suet. Iul. 26,3; Sen. Ben. 6,12,2). Lanistae frequently owned fighters themselves, whom they rented or sold to holders of games; thus they had an important function particularly for the holding of games in the smaller country towns (ILS 5163 l. 9f.; 35; 37; 41; 57; 59). Successful lanistae could realize considerable incomes this way; however, their social status was low (Mart. 11,66), and they were not allowed to hold offices in the municipia (ILS 6085 l. 123). Munus, Munera Onken, Björn (Marburg/Lahn) Bibliography 1 T. Wiedemann, Emperors and Gladiators, 1992.

[German version] Procuring information about the political and military situation of the enemy played an important part in Greek and Roman warfare (cf. Thuc. 6,32,3 f.). Aside from statements made by deserters,  prisoners of war, or even merchants (cf. Caes. Gall. 4,20,3 f.) and travellers, army commanders and politicians made use of the knowledge gained by spies. In Greek texts, spies are referred to as κατάσκοποι/ katáskopoi, although the distinction between espionage and military intelligence is murky (Hdt. 7,145 f.; Thuc. 6,63,3). In Caesar, spies ( speculatores) are disti…

[German version] A. General RE denotes large-scale migration from rural areas into cities, with a change in profession often connected to the change in location. Because ancient societies were at all times agrarian and many cities can be regarded as 'farming communities', RE in Antiquity was as a whole not of such outstanding significance for social change as in the modern era; however, RE was of consider…