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شام، شأم

(21,438 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E. | Lammens, H. | Bosworth, C. E. | Perthes, V. | Lentin, J.
[English edition] الشّام هو المنطقة التي تسمّى «سوريا» في العصر الحديث، وكلمة «الشّام» تعني في الأصل الاشتقاقيّ «المنطقة اليسرى»؛ لأنّ المتكلّم في الجزيرة العربيّة الغربيّة أو الوسطى، كان يُعتبَر في الاستعمال العربيّ القديم مواجها للشّمس المشرقة، فتكون منطقة سوريا إلى شماله، واليمن (اليد اليمنى) وشبه الجزيرة إلى يمينه (انظر: المسعودي، مروج الذّهب، ج3، 140–141، الفقرة 992؛ والمقدّسي، في مقتطفات مترجمة إلى اللّغة الفرنسيّة في: A. Miquel, La meilleure répartition pour la connaissance des provinces, Damascus 1963, 155–6، بما في كليهما وفي مصادر أخرى من تفاسير خياليّة). وفي الاستعمال الإ…

الطبريّ

(4,779 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C. E.
[English edition] أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير بن يزيد الطّبريّ عالم موسوعي، جمعت معارفه بين العلم بالسّنن والعلم بالأحكام، لكنّه اشتهر أكثر بكونه عالما متميّزا في التاريخ وأيّام الناس، ومفسّرا للقرآن خلال القرون الثلاثة أو الأربعة الأولى للإسلام. ولد في شتاء سنة 224–5/839 بآمل، وتُوُفِّي ببغداد سنة 310هـ/923م.…

مَكَّة

(41,239 words)

Author(s): Montgomery Watt, W. | Wensinck, A. J. | Bosworth, C. E. | Winder, R. B. | King, D. A.
[English edition] مكّة (ويقال لها بالإنڤليزية «Mecca» في المعهود المتعارف، وبالفرنسيّة «La Mecque»)، هي أقدس مدينة في الإسلام، فيها ولد النبيّ محمد وعاش 50 عاما تقريباً، وفيها توجد الكعبة [انظر ه]. 1. عصرا ما قبل الإسلام وصدر الإسلام 1.1 الوصف الجغرافي تقع مكة في الحجاز على بعد نحو 72 كم، باتجاه الداخل من ميناء جدة [انظره] على البحر الأحمر، في خطّ العرض 21 ° 27 ‹شمالا وخطّ الطول 39 ° 49 ‹شرقا. وهي الآن عاصمة المناطق الإداريّة لمكة في المملكة العربيّة السعودية، ويتراوح عدد سكانها العادي بين 200.000 و300.000 نسمة ويمكن أن يز…

سلاجقة

(40,932 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C. E. | Hillenbrand, R. | Rogers, J. M. | de Blois, F.C. | Darley-Doran, R. E.
[English edition] ينتمي السلاجقة إلى سلالة تركيّة في إسلام العصر الوسيط، حكمت بطريقة مباشرة أو عن طريق أمراء تابعين لها وهي في أوج قوّتها خلال القرنين الخامس والسادس هجريّا / الحادي عشر والثاني عشر ميلاديّاـ مناطق واسعة من آسيا الغربيّة في بلدان ما وراء النهر وفي فرغانة وسماريش وخوارزم شرقاً إلى الأناضول وسوريا والحجاز من جهة الغرب. ومن صميم ما سُمّيَ امبراطوريّة السلاجقة العُظمى، حافظت السلالات التابعة لعائلة السلاجقة على مناطق مثل كرمان(إلى نهاية القرن السادس الهجري / الثّاني عشر الميلادي) وسوري…

لقب

(11,934 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C. E.
[English edition] هو الكنية ثمّ تغيّر معناه في الإسلام فأصبح يشير إلى اللقب التّشريفي (جمعه ألقاب) ولمزيد من المعلومات حول أصل الكلمة، انظر لـ.كايتاني (L. Caetani)وج. غبرييالي (G. Gabriele) Onomasticon arabicum. i. Fonte-introduzione, Rome 1915, 144–5 ولمزيد المعلومات حول مكانتها في نمط تكوين الأسماء الإسلامية انظر ism. ويبدو أنّ اللقب كان في البداية كنية أواسما مستعارًا يعبّر عن انطباع وإعجاب وقد يكون وصفيّا بحتا، أو محايدا أومشينا أو مجازيّا. وفي هاته الحال غالباً ما كان يسمّى نبزا وجمعها أنباز، قارن مع البيضاوي حول سورة الحجرات الآية 11 «إنّ النبز مختصّ بلقب السوء عُرْ…

Ḥād̲j̲ib

(4,559 words)

Author(s): Sourdel, D. | Bosworth, C.E. | Lambton, A.K.S.
, term which may be translated approximately as chamberlain, used in Muslim countries for the person responsible for guarding the door of access to the ruler, so that only approved visitors may approach him. The term quickly became a title corresponding to a position in the court and to an office the exact nature of which varied considerably in different regions and in different periods. Basically the Master of Ceremonies, the ḥād̲j̲ib often appears as being in fact a superintendent of the Palace, a chief of the guard or a righter of wrongs, sometimes even as a chief minister or a head of government. The word ḥād̲j̲ib itself is derived from the verb ḥad̲j̲aba “to prevent”, and should be considered in conjunction with the term ḥid̲j̲āb which, together with sitr , denotes the curtain used, in accordance with a custom widespread in the Orient before the time of Islam, to conceal the sovereign from the gaze of courtiers or visitors (for the arguments for and against this custom, see al-Ḏj̲āḥiẓ, Kitāb al-Ḥid̲j̲āb , in Rasāʾ…

al-Muʿtaṣim Bi ’llāh

(973 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
, Abū Isḥāḳ Muḥammad b. Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd , ʿAbbāsid caliph, reigned 218-27/833-42, son of the caliph Hārūn by a slave concubine Mārida.…

Mangrōl

(185 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
, the name of two places in India. 1. A port on the southwestern coast of the Kāt́hiāwāŕ peninsula, in lat. 21° 28′ N. and long 70° 14′ E., formerly coming within the native state of D̲j̲unāgaŕh [ q.v.] and with a Muslim local chief there tributary to the Nawwāb of D̲j̲unāgaŕh; the mosque there carries a date 785/1383. Bibliography Imperial gazetteer of India 2, xvii, 180. 2. A town in the former British Indian territory of Rajputana, within the native state of Kotah, in lat. 25° 20′ N. and long. 70° 31′ E. and 44 miles/70 km. to the northeast of Kotah city. He…

Ṣūfiyāna

(183 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
(p.), the term applied to the days of abstinence from eating meat introduced by the Mug̲h̲al emperor of India, Akbar (963-1014/1556-1605 [ q.v.]). His chronicler Abu ’l-Faḍl ʿAllāmī [ q.v.] notes in his Āʾīn-i Akbarī (tr. H. Blochmann, i, 51-2, more accurately tr. in Shireen Moosvi, Episodes…

Pis̲h̲pek

(217 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
a settlement of early and mediaeval Islamic times in the Ču [ q.v.] valley of the Semirečye in Turkestan, during the Soviet period forming the city of Frunze (lat. 42° 54′ N., long. 74° 36′ E.). The region of Pis̲h̲pek and nearby Toḳmaḳ is known to have been in mediaeval Islamic times a centre of Nestorian Christianity, and inscribed grave stones, the oldest of which date back to the time of the Ḳara ¶ K̲h̲iṭay [ q.v.] (6th/12th century), have been found there (see W. Barthold, Zur Geschichte des Christentums in Mittel-Asien bis zur mongolische Eroberung , Tübingen and Leipzig 1901, 1-2, 37-8 et …

Sumerā or Sumrā

(161 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
, the name of a Rād̲j̲pūt tribe of Lower Sind in mediaeval Islamic times. Their origins are shrouded in mystery, but they are first mentioned in Muslim historians’ account of Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azna’s return from his attack on Somnāth in 416/1026 [see sūmanāt ]. For the next three centuries, they were the leading power in Lower Sind, but in the 8th/14th century their domination was challenged by the rival tribe of the Sammās [ q.v.]. Despite attempts by the Tug̲h̲luḳid Sultan of Dihlī, Fīrūz S̲h̲āh (III), to aid the Sumerās, the Sammās finally emerged triumphant over their…

Rāfiʿ b. al-Layt̲h̲ b. Naṣr b. Sayyār

(229 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
, apparently the grandson of the last Umayyad governor of K̲h̲urāsān Naṣr b. Sayyār [ q.v.] and rebel against the ʿAbbāsid caliphate in the opening years of the 9th century A.D. In 190/806 Rāfiʿ led a rising in Samarḳand which turned into a general rebellion throughout Transoxania against the harsh rule and financial exploitation of the caliphal governor of K̲h̲urāsān. ʿAlī b. ʿĪsā b. Māhān [see ibn māhān ]. As well as receiving support from the local Iranian population, Rāfiʿ secured help ¶ from the Turks of the Inner Asian steppes, the Tog̲h̲uz-Og̲h̲uz [see g̲h̲uzz ] and Ḳarluḳ [ q.v.]. Hār…

Gurčānī

(400 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C. E.
, a Balūč tribe of modern Pakistan, living partly in the Indus valley plains of the Dēra G̲h̲āzī Ḵh̲ān District of the Pand̲j̲āb [see dērad̲j̲āt ], and partly in the Mārī and Drāgal hills of the Sulaymān Mountains range and the upland plateaux of S̲h̲am and Paylāwag̲h, extending as far west as the modern Loralai District of northeastern Balūčistān. ¶ The tribe is of mixed origin, some sections being Dōdāīs of mingled Balūč-Sindh Rād̲j̲pūt extraction, whilst others are pure-blooded Balūč of the Rind and Lās̲h̲ārī groups; the chief’s family belongs to one of the Dōdāī sections…

S̲h̲us̲h̲tar

(1,602 words)

Author(s): Kramers, J.H. | Bosworth, C.E.
, S̲h̲ūs̲h̲tar , Arabie form Tustar , a town of southwestern Persia in the mediaeval Islamic province of Ahwāz [ q.v.] and the modern one ( ustān ) of K̲h̲ūzistān (lat. 32° 03’ N., long. 48° 51’ E.). It stands on a cliff to the west of which runs the river Kārūn [ q.v.], the middle course of which begins a few miles north of the town. This position gives the town considerable commercial and strategic importance and has made possible the construction of various waterworks for which the town has long been famous. The main features of these construct…

Ürgenč

(453 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
, a city in the delta region of the Amū Daryā [ q.v.] or Oxus river of K̲h̲wārazm [ q.v.

Ubāg̲h̲

(230 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
, ʿAyn Ubāg̲h̲ , the name of a spring or watercourse on the eastern, sc. ʿIrāḳī, fringes of the Syrian Desert which was the scene of a pre-Islamic yawm or battle of the Arabs. The confused Arabic sources take this as being the battle of A. D. 554 in which the Lak̲h̲mid al-Mund̲h̲ir III b. al-Nuʿmān II was killed fighting the G̲h̲assānid al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Ḏj̲abala [ q.v…

Isfarāyīn

(674 words)

Author(s): Bosworth, C.E.
, a district, and in earlier Islamic times a town, in northwestern Ḵh̲urāsān. It lies on the northern edge of the long plain which extends from Bisṭām and S̲h̲āhrūd in the west almost to Nīs̲h̲āpūr in the east and whose central section is drained by the Kāl-i S̲h̲ūr river before it turns southwards into the Das̲h̲t-i Kawīr. In mediaeval Islamic times, the route from Nīs̲h̲āpūr to Gurgān ran across this plain, and the geographers place Isfarāyīn at roughly the midpoint, five stages from Nīs̲h̲āpūr and five from Gurgān. Though allegedly founded by Isfandiyār, little is known of Isfar…
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