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[German version] In the army of the Roman Republic an optio served under each of the two centuriones of a manipulus . The word derives from the fact that the optio was originally selected by a centurio ( optare, 'choose', 'wish for'; Festus p. 184M; cf. Veg. Mil. 2,7,4). In the Principate, an optio or optio centuriae (ILS 2116) was among the principales in the legiones, who received either pay and a half or double pay (Soldiers' pay) and performed special duties. An optio was ranked between the tesserarius and the signifer (Ensign bearer); he was also under the centurio, in whose absence he …

[German version] The comitatenses were the units that constituted the mobile army of the late Roman Empire. Their name derives from the comitatus, the administrative machine that served the princeps and accompanied him on his travels. The comitatenses were not tied to any specific territorium, and could be joined to territorial troops permanently stationed in specific provinces ( limitanei or ripenses). It is probable that  Diocletianus had raised a mobile army, but it was of limited size. However,  Constantinus enlarged the comitatenses and gave them new significance by on …

( seditio militum). [German version] I. Military Service and Discipline The discipline of the Roman army impressed even non-Roman authors such as Polybius and Flavius Iosephus [4]. They praised the superiority of Roman soldiers, which was achieved by focused training, so that they ‘ruled almost the entire world because of their physical strength and courage ’ (Ios. BI 2,580). However, in the early Republic, the army consisted of a levy of citizens who had a certain amount of wealth. Therefore, it was diff…

[German version] RM are first mentioned (in the form ripenses) in a decision of Constantine I in AD 325 (Cod. Theod. 7,20,4), where they are distinguished from the comitatenses , the field army. Ripenses ranked just below the comitatenses, but above the soldiers of the alae and cohorts, who made up the auxiliary troops (Auxilia). They obtained exemption from the poll tax for themselves and their wives after twenty-four years' service, but were less privileged than the comitatenses in the case of a medical discharge. It is possible that the ripenses or RM (Cod. Theod. 7,1,18; 7,4,14) …

[German version] General designation for the units of the late Roman army that had fixed garrisons in the border regions ( limites; see limes ) of the Roman Empire. They were under the command of a dux limitis, who was responsible for a section of the border, which often stretched over several territorial provinces. The term limitanei is first recorded in an official document in AD 363 (Cod. Theod. 12,1,56); it was used to distinguish the territorial troops from the soldiers of the field army ( comitatenses ), which was not bound to a specific territory. The cre…

[German version] With the exception of the senators and the equites, the centurio was the most important officer in the Roman army. In the 1st cent. BC, a cohort (  cohors ) contained six centuriones, each commanding a   centuria of 80 men, and bearing titles reflecting the former mode of organization by maniples: pilus prior, pilus posterior, princeps prior, princeps posterior, hastatus prior, hastatus posterior. By the Flavian period at the latest, there were only five centuriones in the first cohort, which was, however, the highest ranking cohort in the legion ( primi ordines). There …

[German version] In the 2nd cent. BC, Roman soldiers had to serve in the military for up to six years, followed by a further 16 years, during which as evocati they had to be available to be called up again. During the civil wars in the final years of the Roman Republic, military leaders frequently tried to talk experienced soldiers into returning to their units. Troops recruited in that manner were referred to as evocati. In rank, evocati stood above simple soldiers, but below the centuriones. They either formed a special unit, or they were integrated into existing units. Frequ…

I. Ancient Orient [German version] A. History With the development of the skill of driving teams of horses in the 1st half of the 2nd millennium BC, the methodological foundations of riding also were in place ( Horse III,  Horsemanship). Although there is definite evidence of mounted messengers and scouts from as early as the 14th/13th cents. BC onwards (Akkadogram LÚPETḪALLUM ‘rider’ in Hittite texts; Egyptian pictorial evidence [10]), the use of the cavalry as an armed force did not develop until during the 9th/8th cents. Decisive in this was the diff…

[German version] During early Republican times, the  allies placed units of 500 men under the command of the Roman army, which were later called cohortes and came under the command of a prefect of the relevant town. It remains unclear when the cohortes were integrated into the army as tactical units. Polybius called a cohort a unit consisting of three  maniples (Pol. 11,23; Battle of Ilipa 206 BC), but in his famous description of the Roman army, cohortes are not mentioned. Livy mentions cohortes in his representation of the campaigns in Spain during the 2nd cent. BC, sometime…

[German version] A. Republic In early times, the Roman military contingent probably consisted of 3,000 soldiers in total, each of the three tribus of the royal era providing 1,000 men (Varro, Ling. 5,89) - a military force described as ‘the levy’ ( legio). The division of the Roman people into six classes of wealth, ascribed by historiographical tradition to Servius Tullius (Liv. 1,42,4-43,13; Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 4,15-18) also had a military purpose: a citizen's assets dictated with which weapons he was to equip himself. Those without property ( capite censi) were excluded from mili…

[German version] In late antiquity, bucellarii described groups of barbarian soldiers in the service of respected warriors, who from time to time deployed them in the interest of Rome. Eventually, the term bucellarii developed a particular meaning: an armed retinue, who served large landowners as bodyguards, a practice which -- despite being banned by Leo -- was frequently encountered. Bucellarii could also be found around high-ranking officials, mostly officers; they swore an oath of allegiance to both their lord and the emperor, which seems to indicat…

[German version] Exploratores were the scouts of the Roman army. They reconnoitred the movements and deployments of the enemy as well as the terrain and positions of camps. In the early years of the Principate, soldiers selected from the   auxilia were commandeered from their units for a certain length of time to act as scouts. In the Dacian War (AD 105-106), Ti. Claudius Maximus, then serving in an ala, was selected by Trajan himself as a scout and brought the princeps the head of King Decebalus. In the mid 2nd cent. there is evidence of small reconnaissance units called explorationes. They w…

[German version] Since the Roman senate in the Republican Period was unwilling to support the soldiers after they left the army with provisions of land or money ( praemia), certain commanders took care of it on their own account. This contributed to the development of armies that owed personal allegiance to an individual leader and helped to undermine political stability, beginning with the dictatorship of Cornelius [I 90] Sulla. When the younger Augustus (C. Octavius) established himself against his adversaries in the civ…

[German version] ( cohortes praetoriae). In the Roman Republic, the cohors praetoria was a small military unit which guarded the praetorium and acted as an escort for the commander. According to Festus (Fest. 223M.), Cornelius [I 71] Scipio Africanus was the first to have selected 'the bravest' for his protection. Freed from other duties, they also drew higher pay. In the late Republic, powerful commanders had strong bodyguards; thus in 44 BC, M. Antonius [I 9] assembled a bodyguard of 6,000 from his veterans. In 27 BC, Augustus [1] created a standing corps of praetorians who…

[German version] were Roman soldiers specially selected to serve as aides or orderlies to high-ranking officers (P. Oxy. 7.1022; CIL III 7334). Singulares are found serving in the officia of the praefectus praetorio , the tribunes of the praetorian and urban cohorts, senatorial military tribunes, and the cavalry prefects. The singularis of the praetorian prefect ranked below the tesserarius and belonged to the principales . Equites singulares Campbell, J. Brian (Belfast)

[English version] Die c. waren die Einheiten, die das Feldheer des spätant. röm. Reiches ausmachten. Ihr Name leitet sich von dem comitatus ab, dem Verwaltungsapparat, der dem Princeps diente und ihn auf seinen Reisen begleitete. Die c. waren an kein bestimmtes Territorium gebunden und konnten Territorialtruppen, die ständig in bestimmten Prov. standen ( limitanei oder ripenses), zugefügt werden. Es ist wahrscheinlich, daß Diocletianus ein Feldheer aufgestellt hat, das allerdings nur eine begrenzte Größe hatte. Doch Constantinus vergrößerte die c. und verlieh ihnen eine n…

[English version] Nach Polybios (Pol. 2,22,1; 2,34) waren die G. ein gallischer Stamm, der in den Alpen und an der Rhône lebte; die G. verdingten sich als Söldner, worauf ihr Name zurückzuführen ist (Pol. 2,22,1). Sie nahmen an der gallischen Invasion in Italien 225 v.Chr. teil, wurden jedoch zurückgeschlagen und schließlich 222 v.Chr. erneut besiegt. Gaesum bezeichnete auch einen gallischen Wurfspieß (Caes. Gall. 3,4), den manchmal leichtbewaffnete röm. Truppen trugen (Liv. 8,8,5). Im frühen Pinzipat nannte man Auxiliartruppen, die in Raetia ausgeh…

[English version] Die e. waren Soldaten aus verbündeten ital. Städten; sie dienten im frühen röm. Heer als Eliteeinheiten von Fußtruppen und Reiterei. Zwölf von den consules ernannte Präfekten wählten die besten Soldaten aus den Kontingenten der Bundesgenossen - etwa ein Drittel der Reiterei und ein Fünftel der Fußtruppen - aus, um so die e. zu bilden (Pol. 6,26,6). Einige e. hatten die wichtige Aufgabe, die consules zu begleiten und als deren Leibwache zu fungieren. Sie nahmen allerdings auch als reguläre Truppen an Schlachten teil; so kämpften sie 209 v.Chr…

[English version] Der c. war abgesehen von den Senatoren und den equites der wichtigste Offizier in der röm. Armee. Im 1.Jh. v.Chr. gab es in einer Cohorte ( cohors ) sechs c., die jeweils eine centuria von 80 Mann befehligten und Titel trugen, die die alte Manipelordnung widerspiegelten: pilus prior, pilus posterior, princeps prior, princeps posterior, hastatus prior, hastatus posterior. Spätestens seit der flavischen Zeit befanden sich nur fünf c. in der ersten Cohorte, die jedoch die ranghöchsten in der Legion waren ( primi ordines), wobei es vier Beförderungsschritte zur Po…

[English version] R.m. werden zuerst in einem Edikt des Constantinus I. von 325 n. Chr. (Cod. Theod. 7,20,4) erwähnt: Hier werden sie als ripenses bezeichnet und von den comitatenses , dem Feldheer, unterschieden; sie standen in der Rangordnung unmittelbar unter den comitatenses, aber über den Soldaten der alae und cohortes, der Einheiten der Auxiliartruppen ( auxilia ). Nach 24 Dienstjahren wurden die r.m. von der Kopfsteuer für die eigene Person und für ihre Ehefrau befreit, waren aber bei einer Entlassung aus gesundheitlichen Gründen weniger privilegiert als die comitatenses. E…