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Scholasticism
(2,856 words)
[German Version]
I. Terminology and Assessment Ever since the emergence of medieval studies in the 19th century, the noun
Scholasticism has been used as a collective term for a particular kind of scholarly method, especially in medieval philosophy (II) and theology. The adjective
scholastic, on which it is based, has a history going back to Aristotle (
Politica, Ethica Nicomachea). The focus of Greek σχολαστικός and Latin
scholasticus on the realm of academic instruction (“related to schools,” “educated,” etc.), central to the modern use of
scholasticism, had already taken place in the pre-Christian centuries. Since the 1st century …
Source:
Religion Past and Present
Bonus, John
(101 words)
[German Version] (1168, Mantua? – 1249, Budriolo, Romagna). A layperson who led a life of penitence as a hermit beginning in 1209 in the small village of Budriolo on the northern margins of the Apennines. He founded a hermit community named after h…
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Religion Past and Present
Alfonso X, the Wise
(158 words)
[German Version] (Nov 26, 1221, Toledo – Apr 4, 1284, Seville), king of Castile and Leon from 1252 to 1284. As the grandson of Philip of Swabia, he claimed the Hohenstaufen throne and embarked on an imperialistic policy embracing the entire Mediterranean region. His political ambitions came to nothing; he was more important as a lawgiver who sought to create a uniform code of law for Castile, historian (he wrote or directed the writing of a history of Spain,
Estoria de España, and a universal history,
Grande e general estoria), and promoter of astronomy, music, and poetry (427
Cantigas de S.…
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Religion Past and Present
Ludolf of Saxony
(180 words)
[German Version] (c. 1300, northern Germany – Apr 10, 1378, Straßburg). Initially a Dominican, he was a Carthusian after c. 1340 (Straßburg, Coblenz [Prior], Mainz, Straßburg). His major work is the
Vita Jesu Christi…
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Religion Past and Present
Peter Comestor
(237 words)
[German Version] (Petrus; Manducator; early 12th cent., Troyes – 1178/1179, Paris). After studies in Troyes (where he became dean of the cathedral in 1147 and a canon of the abbey of St. Loup), Tours, and Paris, in 1159 he succeeded his teacher Peter Lombard at the cathedral school in Paris. In 1168 he became chancellor of Notre-Dame. During his last years, he lived in the Augustinian abbey of St. Victor. From his time as a teacher, many works have survived, mostly never published in print: glosses (
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Religion Past and Present
William of Hirsau
(260 words)
[German Version] (1026, Bavaria – Jul 5, 1091, Hirsau), who was of noble birth, was entrusted by his parents as an oblate (I) to the Benedictine abbey of St. Emmeram in Regensburg, where he was taught by Otloh of St. Emmeram. While still in Regensburg, he wrote two works on the quadrivium in dialogue form:
De astronomia and
…
Source:
Religion Past and Present
Controversial Theology
(1,053 words)
[German Version] is a branch of theology that judges differences between various Christian Churches from a polemical and argumentative point of view rather than analyzing them from a historically critical perspective. The “controversy” involved relates both to the object and the method of this discipline. Theological positions are discussed when they become significant in disturbing or dividing the church community, and not so much as contributions to an open scholarly debate.
I. Although the term controversial theology did not become common until the 20th century, what it refers to can be traced historically beginning with Paul's debates with congregations that had a difference in emphasis (esp. in Jerusalem and Corinth). The separation process between the developing majority Catholic Church and the Christian minorities, which the Catholic Church combated and marginalized, gave rise to the polemical writings that represent the controve…
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Religion Past and Present
Peter Cantor
(242 words)
[German Version] (Petrus; first half of the 12th cent., Hosdenc, near Beauvais – 1197, Cistercian abbey of Longpont, near Soissons). Sometime before 1173, after studying at the cathedral school in Reims, he began teaching at the cathedral school in Paris as a canon; in…
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Religion Past and Present
Cathedral Schools
(471 words)
[German Version] were educational originally institutions for training clergy, administered by the episcopal curia. In the Early Church, learned bishops (preeminently Augustine) already gave instruction to their clergy. From the second Council of Toledo (527/531) onward, the Church repeatedly urged the establishment of episcopal schools; in 789, they were ¶ enjoined by Charlemagne, and in 1076 by Gr…
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Religion Past and Present
Reform, Idea of
(2,727 words)
[German Version] In classical Latin, the verb
reformare and the associated noun
reformatio already denoted a transformation for the better: restoration of an earlier human condition, since lost (morality e.g. Pliny the Younger
…
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Religion Past and Present
Recluses/Hermits
(442 words)
[German Version] Recluses or hermits are men and women who do penance by shutting themselves (or having themselves shut) into a cell, either for a specific period (usually at the beginning of their lives as ascetics) or for the rest of their lives. This extreme form of asceticism surfaced in the Early Church in all regions of the East where there were monastic settlements (e.g. in Egypt, John of Lycopolis; esp. common in Syria) and came to the West in the 6th century, but it reached its climax in …
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Religion Past and Present
Vikings
(188 words)
[German Version] The Vikings were marauding seafarers from Scandinavia, who plagued large sections of Europe from ¶ the 8th century to the 11th century. Swedes descended on Novgorod and Kiev via the Gulf of Finland, advancing as far …
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Religion Past and Present
Remigius of Auxerre (Saint)
(119 words)
[German Version] (after 841 – May 2, probab…
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Religion Past and Present
Libri sententiarum
(992 words)
[German Version] Authoritative dicta with significant content (Gk γνώμη/
gnṓmē [earliest: Sophoc.
Ajax 1091] alongside more specialized terms; Lat.
sententia [since Cicero]) were already in use in pre-Christian times in literary and rhetorical contexts; later they were collected for more convenient use (
gnomology, similar to
anthology [Florilegium]). Examples are Μενάνδρου γνώμαι μονόστιχοι/
Menándrou gnṓmai monóstichoi ¶ (probably begun in the 2nd cent. bce; continued into the Byzantine period) and …
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Religion Past and Present
Quaestio
(422 words)
[German Version] A true (as opposed to “rhetorical”) question (Gk ζήτημα/
zḗtēma, πρόβλημα/
próblēma, ἀπορία/
aporía, Lat.
quaestio), seeking an answer that will solve a problem, is a fundamental tool for rational argumentation. It was used already by the ancient Greeks (beginning with the questions of Socrates in the dialogues …
Source:
Religion Past and Present
Oxford University
(900 words)
[German Version] The city is first mentioned in 912. It was founded in the Anglo-Saxon period and walled by the Normans, and lies at the intersection of important routes. As early as the 12th century there were schools for the
artes liberales…
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Religion Past and Present