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, S̲h̲āhnawār Ḵh̲ān S̲h̲ahīd Ḵh̲wāfī Awrangābādī, an Indian statesman and historian. His early name was ʿAbd al-Razzāḳ Ḥusainī and he belonged to a Saiyid family which had migrated to India from Ḵh̲wāf in Ḵh̲urāsān in the time of Akbar and attained high honour there. He was born in Lahore on Ramaḍān 28, 1111 (March 20, 1700) and while still young moved to Awrangābād [q. v.] where he was appointed Dīwān of Berār by the first independent Niẓām of the Deccan, Āṣaf Ḏj̲āh [q. v.; see also the article ḥaidārābād]. In 1155 (1742) he was involved in the rising attempted by Nāṣir Ḏj̲ang, so…

, a name of the ʿIrāḳ [q.v.]. While the name ʿIrāḳ has been proved to be a Pahlavi loanword (from Ērag, “low land, south land”, occurring in the Turfan fragments, with assimilation to the semantically connected stem ʿrḳ; cf. A. Siddiqi, Studien über die persischen Fremdwörter im klass. Arab., p. 69; H. H. Schaeder, Isl., xiv. 8—9; J. J. Hess, Zeitschr. f. Semitistik, ii.) sawāa “black land” is the oldest Arabic name for the alluvial land on the Euphrates and Tigris given on account of the contrast to the eye between it and the Arabian desert (Yāḳūt, Muʿd̲j̲am, iii. 174,14 sqq.). The name has u…

, a Persian poet of India of the seventeenth century. His full name was Mīrzā Abū Ṭālib Kalīm of Hamad̲h̲ān. He lived first in Kās̲h̲ān, so that he is also given the nisba Kās̲h̲ānī as well as Hamad̲h̲ānī. In the beginning of the reign of Ḏj̲ahāngīr (q. v., 1014—1037 = 1605—1627) he came to India to his court. A considerable journey took him in the following years to the ʿIrāḳ, from which he returned in 1028 (1619) to India and lived there henceforth as court-poet of the Mog̲h̲ul Emperors. Under Ḏj̲ahāngīr’s successor S̲h̲āh Ḏ…

, a name used in early Islamic times for ʿIrāḳ [ q.v.]. While the name ʿIrāḳ has been proved to be a Pahlavi loanword (from Ērag , “low land, south land”, occurring in the Turfan fragments, with assimilation to the semantically connected root ʿrḳ ; cf. A. Siddiqi, Studien über die persischen Fremdwörter im klass. Arab., Göttingen 1919, 69; H.H. Schaeder, in Isl ., xiv, 8-9; J.J. Hess, in ZS, ii, 219-23) sawād “black land” is the oldest Arabic name for the alluvial land on the Euphrates and Tigris given on account of the co…

, an ancient city of Transoxania, the Arabic Māʾ warāʾ al-Nahr [ q.v.], situated on the southern bank of the Zarafs̲h̲ān river or Nahr Ṣug̲h̲d. In early Islamic times it was the first city of the region in extent and populousness, even when, as under the Sāmānids (3rd-4th/9th-10th centuries [ q.v.]), Buk̲h̲ārā [ q.v.] was the administrative capital. Samarḳand’s eminence arose from its position at the intersection of trade routes from India and Afg̲h̲ānistān via Balk̲h̲ and Tirmid̲h̲ [ q.vv.] and from Persia via Marw [see marw al-s̲h̲āhid̲j̲ān ] which then led …

(older form Sāwad̲j̲, cf. the nisba Sāwad̲j̲ī, found at the side of Sāwī), a town of northern Persia some 125 km/80 miles to the southwest of Tehran (lat. 35° 00′ N., long. 50° 22′ E., altitude 960 m/3,149 feet). It was formerly on the Ḳazwīn-Ḳumm road used in mediaeval times but now replaced by the modern paved roads-system centred on Tehran, and on the main caravan and pilgrimage route from southwestern Persia a…