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al-Zamān (a.) i. e. “Lord of the Age”, a S̲h̲īʿa term. The phrase includes the two theological meanings of “representative of God on earth” and “Deputy” of the Prophet. Among the earlier S̲h̲īʿīs for example the Imām is called “the ḳāʾim”, “our ḳāʾim” or “the ḳāʾim of his age”, synonymous with ḥud̲j̲d̲j̲a or k̲h̲alīfa. The political application of the word brought in the meaning of “rebellious”, current among all the seceding sects, c. g. also among the Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲īs. Through chiliasm the name is given to the Mahdi as “resurrected” from (apparent) death who is active in the “age” through the na…

, a school of law, which would derive the law only from the literal text ( ẓāhir) of the Ḳurʾān and Sunna. In the “branches” of law ( furūʿ al-fiḳh) it still further increased the number of contradictory detailed regulations by many divergencies, peculiar to it alone. More important is its significance for the principles of legislation ( uṣūl al-fiḳh), the development and elucidation of which it considerably furthered by its uncompromising fight against raʾy, ḳiyās, istiṣḥāb, istiḥsān and taḳlīd [q. v.]. In the ʿIrāḳ the Ẓāhirī mad̲h̲hab, also called Dāʾūdī after its founder [see dāʾūd b.…

li-Dīn Allāh, official name of several Zaidī imāms. I. Among the Caspian Zaidīs this title was borne by 1. al-Nāṣir al-Kabīr al-Uṭrūs̲h̲ [q. v.] and his great-grandson 2. al-Nāṣir al-Ṣag̲h̲īr al-Ḥūsain b. al-Ḥasan b. al-Ḥasan b. ʿAlī. The latter gained for himself a dominion beginning in Hawsam, where he could find associations with the earlier period of Zaidī rule. He laid great emphasis on the religious character of Zaidism; he gave out of the state treasury funds to support people who learned the Ḳurʾān by heart. He was also a …

b. Aiyūb al-Malik al-Muʿahẓhẓam S̲h̲ams al-Dawla Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn, founder of the Aiyūbid dynasty of the Yemen. He was born at the beginning of Rad̲j̲ab 569 (February 1174); two years before, the death of the last Fāṭimid ʿĀḍid [q. v.] had formally made Saladin lord of Egypt; the relationship of vassal and overlord between him and the Zangid Atābeg Nūr al-Dīn Maḥmūd had now become unnatural and threatened to end in war; King Amalrich of Jerusalem, with whom Saladin had been fighting, was still unsubdued; the Crus…

(a.), a. expression of sympathy in general, b. the passion play of the S̲h̲īʿīs. The word, a verbal noun from ʿaziya II, is not found in the Ḳurʾān (but cf. ʿizīn in lxx. 37), but occurs in all schools of fiḳh at the end of the book on public worship in the section, or in the separate book, al-d̲j̲anāʾiz = burial, where sympathy is requested for the relatives. Among the S̲h̲īʿīs it means in the first place the lamentation for the martyred imāms, which is held at their graves and aiso at home. In particular, however, it is mourning for Ḥusain. The tābūt, a copy of the tomb at Kerbelāʾ, in popular…

, a name of several heretical schools, notably the ultra-S̲h̲īʿī Muḥammadīya. As the example of the Kaisānīya [q. v.] shows, at an early date some S̲h̲īʿīs transferred the imāmate to ʿAlids who were not descendants of the Prophet’s daughter Fāṭima and then to those who were not ʿAlids at all. The Manṣūrīya revered such an one in Abū Manṣūr al-ʿId̲j̲lī, whom Yūsuf b. ʿOmar al-T̲h̲aḳafī, governor of the ʿIrāḳ, executed in the reign of the Caliph His̲h̲ām, i. e. before 125 (743). Abū Manṣūr, rejected by the I…

bi ’llāh al-Ḳāsim, the name of two Zaidī imāms of the Yemen. I. al-Ḳāsim b. ʿAlī al-ʿAiyānī (? according to others al-IIyānī). His genealogy goes back through a certain ʿAbd Allāh and a Muḥammad to al-Ḳāsim b. Ibrāhīm Ṭabāṭabā (d. 246 = 860), the spiritual founder of Zaidism in the Yemen; he is however not a descendant of the latter’s grandson, al-Hādī Yaḥyā b. al-Ḥusain, the creator of the secular power of the Zaidīs in the Yemen. The latter was succeeded in the imāmate by his two sons: the weak Muḥammad al-Mu…

, the practical group of the S̲h̲īʿa, distinguished from the It̲h̲nā ʿAs̲h̲arīya [q. v.] and the Sabʿīya [q. v.] by the recognition of Zaid b. ʿAlī. After the latter’s death they took part in several ʿAlid risings but were not a united body. Writers on heresy distinguish eight schools among them: from Abū ’l-Ḏj̲ārūd, who combined warlike activity with apotheosis of the imāms and belief in a Mahdī, to Salama b. Kuhail whose Zaidism was watered down to a simple S̲h̲īʿa point of view. It was the sa…

Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. al-Nuʿmān al-Ḥārit̲h̲ī, also called Ibn al-Muʿallim, a distinguished Twelver scholar of Bag̲h̲dād under the Būyids, was born at the end of 333 or 338 (945 or 950), and came of an old Ḳurais̲h̲ family which, as his second epithet shows, had a reputation for scholarship; he himself became, as his epithet shows, the teacher from whom all “later students have derived advantage”. While he took little active part in politics, he was a very prolific author. His correspondence, usually replies to queries, came from Mawṣil, Ḏj̲urd̲j̲ān, Dīnawar, Raḳḳa, Ḵh̲wār…

, the nisba of many spiritual s̲h̲aik̲h̲s of the Abāḍīs [q.v.]. To the fifth (eleventh) century belongs: Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf b. Muḥammad al-Tanāwutī who often appears in later tradition. His son Ismāʿīl but still more his grandson Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf b. Ismāʿīl had the reputation of being very devout and miraculously gifted. The most important bearer of the name is the last-named’s son: Abū ʿAmmār ʿAbd al-Kāfī al-Tanāwutī, fellow-pupil and friend of Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf b. Ibrāhīm al-Sadrātī al-Wārd̲j̲alānī. He came of a wealthy family and had an allowance of 1,000 d…

, a mausoleum outside Cairo, south of the Mosque of Aḥmad b. Ṭūlūn in the direction of the sepulchral mosque of al-S̲h̲āfiʿī. Among the female saints [cf. walī] in Cairo next to Saiyida Zainab bint Muḥammad [q. v.] and “Sitt Sekina” (Sukaina) “Sitt Nefisa” takes a very prominent place. In the official recitations of the Ḳurʾān, al-Saiyida Nafīsa, where the reading is held on Sundays, takes third place among them all, immediately after Imām al-S̲h̲āfiʿī and Imām al-Ḥusainī (see Bergsträsser, in Isl., xxi. [1933], 110 sq.). The sanctuary is visited by both men and women, especiall…

Zain al-ʿĀbidīn [q. v.] gave his name to the Zaidīya [q. v.] who revere him as a political and religious martyr; he was the first ʿAlid after the catastrophe which overwhelmed his grandfather al-Ḥusain b. ʿAlī ¶ [q. v.] at Kerbelāʾ to endeavour to deprive the Umaiyads of the caliphate by armed rebellion when he placed himself at the disposal of the Kūfans as Imām. Except for an interval of two months when he was secretly seeking adherents in Baṣra, he spent a year in preparation in Kūfa, hidden in constantly changing hiding-places…

the seventh Imām of the Twelfer S̲h̲īʿa, son of Ḏj̲aʿfar b. Muḥammad al-Ṣādiḳ [q. v.], was born about 128 (745) at al-Abwāʾ [q. v.], the traditional burial-place of Āmina, mother of the Prophet. He grew to manhood in his father’s house in Medīna and remained there as Imām after the latter’s death in 148 (765) without playing any part in politics. In particular he took no share in the great rising of the Ḥasanid ʿAlids which collapsed at Fak̲h̲k̲h̲ in 169 (786). Nevertheless the caliph was suspi…

b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān (also al-Raḥīm) b. Kuraib al-Ḥiwālī (on the disputed vocalisation cf. the poem in van Arendonk [see Bibl.], p. 232, note 3), founder of the dynasty of Yaʿfurids or Ḥiwālids who claimed to be descended from the Tubbaʿs, the ancient Ḥimyarite kings. Their ancestral home S̲h̲ibām, called S̲h̲ibām Aḳyān or S̲h̲ibām Kawkabān to distinguish it from other places of the same name, is described by geographers as a well cultivated hilly country. In the caliphate of al-Muʿtaṣim, i. e. before 227 (842), Yaʿf…

Dualism, means the doctrine that light and darkness are the two equal eternal creative principles. There is not a regular T̲h̲anawīya sect or school in Islām. The term, as the characteristic name of a school of thought, is limited to three non-Muslims and their adherents: Ibn Daiṣān, Mānī and Mazdak [see these three articles]. A danger arose to Islām through the tendency to dualism within its ranks from the mass conversions of Persians, as was seen for example at the beginning of the ʿAbbāsid period in the disturbing figure of Ibn al-Muḳaffaʿ. He w…

a dynasty of Abyssinian Mamlūks at Zabīd [q. v.] from 412 to 553 (1022—1158). When the last Ziyadī [q. v.] had been put to death in the vizierate of the Abyssinian Mard̲j̲ān by one of his Mamlūk governors Nafīs, the other Nad̲j̲āḥ came forward to avenge him. After desperate fighting, Nafīs was slain and Nad̲j̲āḥ in Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 412 (Feb. 1022) entered Zabīd where he had the vizier built alive into a wall in exact revenge for the Ziyādī. As his rival Nafīs had already done, Nad̲j̲āḥ assumed the insignia of royalty, struck his own coins and inserted his own name in the k̲h̲uṭba after that of the ʿ…

, the general name for a large group of very different Muslim sects, the starting point of all of which is the recognition of ʿAlī as the legitimate caliph after the death of the Prophet. The Motives of the S̲h̲īʿa and the Earlier Period Islām is a religious and a political phenomenon as its founder was a prophet and statesman. The development of the community of Islām into separate sectional groups was therefore a natural result of the different possible relations which the political constitution and religious belief might bear to one an…

, a Yaman dynasty of 204 to 371 (819—981) or 409 (1018) with capital in Zabīd [q.v.]. They were regarded as descendants of Ziyād b. Abīhi [q. v.]. But as the latter’s genealogy is uncertain, so not even the name of the father of the founder of the dynasty, Muḥammad, has been handed down with certainty. The caliph Maʾmūn was harassed by his uncle Ibrāhīm b. al-Mahdī; at the same time tribes in the Yaman became rebellious. The fact that there were ʿAlid schemes afoot there and indeed shortly before Ibrāhīm al-Ḏj̲azzār, a brother of ʿAlī al-Riḍā [q. v.], had been plundering in Ṣanʿāʾ, may ¶ have decid…

Naṣīr al-Dīn, Abū Ḏj̲aʿfar Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan, astronomer, polychronicler and S̲h̲īʿa politician of the period of the Mongol invasion, born at Ṭūs on the 11th Ḏj̲umādā I 597 (Feb. 18, 1201), died at Bag̲h̲dād on the 18th Ḏh̲u’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 672 (June 26, 1274). Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī began his career as astrologer to the Ismāʿīlī governor Naṣīr al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥīm b. Abī Manṣūr at Sertak̲h̲t. After his attempt to transfer to the caliph’s court had been betrayed, he was kept under supervision in Sertak̲h̲t and later in Alamūt […

(Banu ’l-), a dynasty of ʿAden, from 476—533 (1083—1138) conducted an Ismāʿīlī condominium — at first as viceroys of the Ṣulaiḥids of Ṣanʿāʾ — in two branches, the Banū Masʿūd and the Banū ʿAbbās Abi ’l-Zuraiʿ; from 533—569 (1138—1173) the latter alone — the Zuraiʿids, also called Banu ’l-Ḏh̲iʾb (sons of the wolf) — held the now independent sultanate, only recognising the Caliphate of the Fāṭimids. The Banu ’l-Karam belonged to the Ḏj̲us̲h̲am clan of the tribe of Yām in the Ḥamdān group and were closely related to the Ṣulaiḥids [q. v.]. They were therefore the principal supporters of ¶ the fo…